
Bnnk , h 4- ^__ 



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THE 



ILLUSTRATED 



HORSE MANAGEMENT 



CONTAINING DESCRIPTIVE EEMARKS ITPON 



ANATOMY, MEDICINE, SHOEING, TEETH, FOOD, 
VICES, STABLES; 



UKEWISE A PLAIN ACCOUNT OF THE 



Sititatiott, ptut^ u)i Mtt^ at t^t Ijehows foints 



TOGETHEE \71TH COMMENTS ON 



GROOMS, DEALERS, BREEDERS, BREAKERS, AND TRAINERS 



CAREIAGES AND HAENESS. 



Einbellished with more than 400 Engravings, from Original Designs made 
expressly for this Work. 



BY 

EDWAED MAYHEW, M.E.C.V.S. 

AUTHOR OF "THE ILLUSTRATED HORSE DOCTOR," AND OTHER WORKS 



PHILADELPHIA : 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. 

1864. 



Af47 



Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1864, by 

J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 
District of Pennsylvania. 



PREFACE. 



The reader, after having perused the present volume, 
may imagine the writer should have been more explicit 
when advertising the book's intentions, that a mass of 
speculative novelty should not have been hastily intruded 
upon the general public. Such, probably, will be the pri- 
mary impression of most purchasers. The author, how- 
ever, regrets he is by truth obliged to decline the compli- 
ment embodied in such a complaint. Those notions which, 
hurriedly regarded, appear as original, will, to the matured 
judgment, show only as an obvious result, worked out by 
the easy application of a single idea. Common sense em- 
braces every merit in the ensuing pages. Grant this, and 
there remains no loftier claim to advance. The different 
chapters contain nothing which is not very superficial and 
entirely based upon fact. Every statement included in the 
following articles becomes plain and self-evident to the man 
who can release his mind from the trammels of conven- 
tionality, and will allow his conceptions to be shaped by 
the habits and the inclinations which are natural to the 
equine species. 

No living creature could be more exposed to the willful- 
ness of perversity than the horse has hitherto been. All 

(V) 



VI PREFACE. 

around and about the quadruped was moulded by influ- 
ences which never regard the instincts of the animal. 
Every incident, directly or remotely concerning its welfare, 
was misconstrued or misstated. In proof of this is the 
common belief that Arabia produces the perfection of the 
tribe. This opinion is not to be substantiated by investi- 
gation. It is accepted upon no positive evidence. It is 
opposed to deductions drawn from a notorious fact. The 
greater number of Arabian steeds are not much larger 
than ordinary ponies. The climate dwarfs the stature. 
Dwindled development is recognized as the established 
proof of an uncongenial location. 

The Arab horse is undoubtedly the most beautiful and 
the most intelligent specimen of its race. Travelers assure 
us it lives beside its master. It is the companion of the 
man and the playmate of the child. The country may not 
be favorable to its bodily perfection ; but the affections and 
the mental attributes of a dumb intelligence are in that 
land cultivated and enlarged. Arabia boasts possession of 
the most civilized race of quadrupeds which are known to 
mankind. Looking on the creatures of that country, the 
world can contemplate the money value of kindness, since 
the indulgence of this emotion can conceal a serious cor- 
poral defect! 

Probably it may be urged such intimacy between the 
human being and the beast is compatible only with a wild 
and a half-savage state of society. But there exist other 
nations as unrefined j nay, many peoples are known to be 
more barbarous than are the Arabs. The animal, how- 
ever, fares as badly with inhabitants of the uncultured 
as with people of the civilized regions. The absence or 



PREFACE. VU 

the presence of refinement does not influence the welfare 
of an equine slave. Then gentleness in the Arabian must 
be a purely responsive emotion. Its presence or its absence 
is apart from mental status, or the social distinctions of 
' the population to whom it is subjected and by whom it is 
surrounded. 

The horse, in Britain, generally occupies the same house 
as the groom; but it is not, therefore, regarded with the 
feeling which is indulged by the inhabitant of the tent. 
The change from the soil of its birth to the English stable 
is attended with a total alteration of circumstances. Cold- 
ness or brutality, however, cannot banish the spirit which 
benevolence had fostered. The rebellion provoked by harsh- 
ness is only more complete. The quietude of content is 
replaced by the wildness of timidity. Confidence is de- 
stroyed; fear assumes the likeness of savagery. The horse 
becomes a brute; for ignorance will not believe its inferior 
can be actuated by a reasonable motive. 

In India the cavalry are mounted upon half-bred Persian 
horses. Not a few of the officers, however, bestride chargers 
of pure Arabian blood. These last are commonly under 
the charge of European servants, and serve European 
masters. The animal's nature changes with its location. 
The alteration, therefore, is independent of heat or of frost. 
The Arabs of India are as famed for ferocity as the creat- 
ures of the desert are notorious for gentleness of disposition. 

The English behavior is chiefly shaped by selfishness, 
based upon a degraded superstition, which insists that every 
form of inferior existence was created for man's use and 
relinquished to his pleasure. The author must leave to 
others the inquiry, whether Christianity invests those who 



Vill PREFACE. 

profess to believe its doctrines with any power which can 
be separated from the potency of charity. It is not for him 
to decide whether the conduct of a half-savage and a pagan 
tribe should, in its fruits and in its results, shame the con- 
sequences produced by the acts of men who boast of educa- 
tion and worship the exemplification of self-sacrifice and of 
love. 

Would man only be content to base observations upon 
fact, anatomy has for a sufficient period ascertained a cir- 
cumstance which should have startled public wonder into 
exclamation. But, where the horse is involved, centuries 
of prejudice appear to have generated a slothfulness of 
comprehension which overpowers all ordinary intelligence. 
In a bird a similar development has for ages been accepted 
as the proof of peacefulness of disposition. The pigeon 
congregates in flocks; it lives on vegetable substances, and 
it possesses a liver which exhibits no gall-bladder. This 
deficiency and these habits apply to the horse as literally 
as to the feathered type of innocence. Perhaps the higher 
status of the quadruped might be urged as the ground of a 
primary title to human consideration. Yet the dove-cot 
would seem to have blinded man to the merits of the 
stable ! 

The horse possesses a full-sized liver; still the gland ex- 
hibits no receptacle in which any excess of biliary secretion 
may be retained. The testimony of nature associates the 
creatures which man views as opposites, or regards as the 
emblem of peace and as the living embodiment of inveterate 
vice. Sameness and dissimilarity appear oddly united when 
both lives are viewed as the creations of the Omniscient. 
Resemblance in body should direct recognition to a likeness 



PREFACE. U. 

in spirit. Bearing in mind by whose ordinization all facts 
originate; remembering how life in this world is linked by 
bonds more difficult to trace than a positive sameness; and 
admitting that the One Parent had a design in every part 
of the many forms which He called into existence, — human 
ignorance must be wrong when it refuses to acknowledge 
an identity thus plainly emphasized. 

That the workings of mortal conception are peculiarly 
eccentric, or at all events that candid appreciation has not 
embraced the helpmate of man on earth, is established by 
every rule of right being perverted when the horse appears 
upon the scene. The spirit of perversion seems so power- 
ful it involves even the people who act with the animal. 
When Mr. Earey came to England, he was hailed as a 
wonder. Mr. Earey is now away from these shores, and 
the persons who formerly acknowledged his genius now 
speak of the system which he publicly demonstrated, as a 
flagrant imposture ! 

Why is this? What causes such contradictory opinions? 
His present defamers declare Mr. Earey to be a humbug, 
because horses, when returned to the former grooms and 
subjected to the former treatment, resume the former 
habits. Like causes in other spheres are admitted to pro- 
duce like results. The animal merely responds to the con- 
duct of those who surround it. Mr. Earey tames by the 
exhibition of kindness. He convinces dumb intelligence 
how futile is resistance, and makes apparent the groundless- 
ness of fear. It is not the spirit which he subdues, but it 
is the confidence which he gains. All his acts are dictated 
by a desire to banish distrust. The animal having learned 
its lesson is restored to its proprietor. But if the owner 



X PREFACE. 

has not profited by the instruction which he also has wit- 
nessed, ought he to be surprised if his inferior should forget 
the lesson received ? 

Is there not something remorselessly evil in thus con- 
verting the bad conduct of mankind into a reason for deny- 
ing the operation of an obvious goodness; in refusing to 
acknowledge the responsive nature of the companion spe- 
cially given to soften the doom of the human race; and 
doing this only to warrant the insolence of severity, which 
would seem to be a failing inherent in mortal breasts? But 
the doctrines of love and of charity are, by many worthy 
individuals, supposed to apply only to the conduct of man 
to man. There, in general belief, begins and ends the 
lesson. Even at this late period it is often read but never 
understood that Universal Benevolence looked down and 
blessed every form of life which the Spirit had created. 

To inculcate the Christian theory; to simply illustrate 
its wisdom, and to demonstrate the folly of verbally ac- 
knowledging its teaching, while the acts of its professed 
believers do not testify to its truth, has been the endeavor 
of the author. He imagines that possibly he may convince 
some reader of the loss which the existing customs entail 
upon society. He does not anticipate to actuate many 
purchasers; but should a few carry into practice one or 
two of his suggestions, and such innovations should upon 
trial prove successful, other experiments will be hazarded, 
until all meriting adoption are generally recognized. 

But numerous readers, after having read the foregoing, 
may nevertheless be inclined to inquire, "What is the use 
of this fuss about morality, when the issue only involves a 
liorse?" To this interrogatory the writer unhesitatingly re- 



PREFACE. XI 

plies, that the first and the most difficult teaching of civiliza- 
tion ever concerns man's behavior to his inferiors. Make 
humanity gentle or reasonable toward animals, and strife 
or injustice between human beings would speedily termin- 
ate. But instruction to be effective should be convincing : 
therefore, purposely avoiding sentimentality, the author 
has sought to enlist the feeling only by satisfying the 
judgment. 

Such are the purposes which induced "Horse Manage- 
ment" to be indited. But high as the object may be, the 
writer, when submitting his labors to the notice of the pub- 
lic, cannot otherwise than feel there is a common phrase, 
which passes current for criticism, and to which this book 
is peculiarly exposed. The colloquialism alluded to is the 
more insidious because it rather appeals to a prejudice than 
expresses anything absolute or definite. It rests upon a 
word in general use among the superficial of every profes- 
sion, and that word is one which, in the public credulity, 
exalts the individual who abuses it. Let a medical practi- 
tioner study to master the rudiments of his calling, and the 
purpose of his assiduity will be whispered away by insinua- 
tions about the student being a most admirable theorist; 
but, unhappily, not being ^^ o, practical man." 

Another individual shall earn disgrace at college. Yet 
this man shall start business to knock about the drugs and 
hack at living flesh, without comprehending the parts he is 
interfering with or having any knowledge of the medicines 
which he ventures to administer. This last person, though 
he neither adorns nor enlarges the sphere in which he acts, 
invariably attains the lucrative repute of being "a purely 
'practical man." The notoriety brings profit to the object 



XU _ PREFACE. 

who merits no reward, while the absence of such fame 
acutely increases the sufferings of a deserving gentleman 
who had dared to brave the thorns which proverbially 
beset the pathway of desert to the recognition of society. 

Against the facts declared in the present pages those who 
are interested to uphold existing foolish and cruel customs 
will probably urge their ^^ favorite phrase!^ To conceal its 
hollowness and to render acceptable its wholesale condem- 
nation, it may be ushered in by an appearance of candor: 
thus, "Oh! the book is very pretty — nice reading — very 
humane — a little weak — rather overdone — too philanthrop- 
ical, and wholly '^unpractical.' It teaches nothing which 
experience could adopt or which the thorough horseman 
can do more than laugh at. Entirely unjyracticaV 

How long are men to be subjugated by mere verbal as- 
sertion ? All this world has to boast of — all mighty truths, 
all great inventions — have originally had to struggle against 
this "practicaV' bugbear, which ignorance sets up to frighten 
its fellows from those doctrines which aim at the ameliora- 
tion of mankind. Eecently it delayed the realization of 
railways. It has long opposed all social improvement ; and 
as this is written it is being advanced as a barrier to Prac- 
tical Christianity itself! Those who can regard the in- 
struction of the Creator as too fine for the creature of his 
creation, may readily condemn all human promptings! 

To deprive this phrase of its abuse and destroy its mys- 
terious signification, let the reader quietly ask himself what 
is really meant by a thing, a book, or a doctrine being 
'^practical." If the word bears any construction, it ob- 
viously must imply that which can be used, or a lesson 
which is capable of being illustrated by performance. The 



PREFACE. XUl 

test of '^practicahility,'' then, resides in the sincerity of those 
endeavors which attempt to embody certain instructions. 
Where no wish to exemplify exists, of course no teaching 
can be ^'practical" The proof, consequently, generally re- 
poses with the person who advances the accusation, and 
the accuser is by this prejudice constituted judge of that 
he has already condemned. 

What is there in the present volume or in the " Horse 
Doctor" which cannot possibly be enacted, supposing an 
actuating motive to influence the trial? Nothing can be 
practical if there be wanting the desire to embody particular 
directions ; but to ascertain the value of a current phrase, 
he to whom it is addressed should ask for the special pas- 
sage to which this condemnation pointedly alludes. If no 
specific warrant can be produced, a verdict merely founded 
upon generalities should never be accepted. 

The author, when seeking to accomplish the evident pur- 
pose of the volume, deeply regrets those comments which a 
regard for correctness has compelled him to ofier upon the 
present race of grooms. He can, however, with sincerity 
deny that the indulgence of dislike, or the gratification of 
malice, has induced him to travel beyond the limits of his 
subject. The men in this capacity occupy an unfortunate 
position. They and their interests range in the foremost 
rank of existing wrong. It is impossible to amend the 
regulations of any modern stable without removing some 
of this calling, or overthrowing some of the abuses, with a 
perpetuation of which the stable servant and his perquisites 
are directly involved. An earnest desire for improvement, 
therefore, compelled the review of that class who, if un- 
assailed, were interested to be the most strenuous advocates 



Xiv PREFACE. 

of the bad usages which it was desired should be over- 
thrown. 

In conclusion, the getting up of the work bespeaks the 
care bestowed upon the volume by the publishers, to whom 
the author offers his most fervent acknowledgments. Nor 
can the writer bid adieu to his patrons without directing 
attention to the talent exhibited by the numerous artists 
and engravers whose labors adorn the pages of the present 
publication. 

NORBURY, 

Lansdowne Road, Torquay. 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

PAOS 

The body of the horse anatomically considered ...... 17 

CHAPTER II. 
Physic — The mode of administering it, and minor operations ... 53 

CHAPTER III. 
Shoeing — Its origin, its uses, and its varieties . . . . . . 95 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Teeth — Their natural grcw^th, and the abuses to which they are liable. 133 

CHAPTER V. 

Food — The fittest time for feeding, and the kind of food which the horse 

naturally consumes .......... 168 

CHAPTER VI. 
The evils which are occasioned by modern stables 200 

CHAPTER VII. 
The faults inseparable from most present erections which are used as stables. 233 

CHAPTER VIII. 

The so-called "incapacitating vices," which are the results of injury or of 

disease 263 

CHAPTER IX. 
Stables as they should be 297 

(XV) 



XVI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER X. 
Grooms — Their prejudices, their injuries, and their duties .... 327 

CHAPTER XI. 

Horse Dealers — Who they are, their mode of dealing, their profits, their 

morality, and their secrets ... 357 

CHAPTER XII. 
Points — Their relative importance, and where to look for their development. 379 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Breeding — Its inconsistencies and its disappointments 427 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Breaking and Training — Their errors and their results .... 449 

CHAPTER XV. 

Carriages — Their cost, their make, their excellences, and their management. 477 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Saddlery, Harness, and Stable Sundries — Of what these consist ; their appli- 
cation and their preservation 494 

Index 527 



THE 



ILLUSTRATED HORSE MANAGEMENT. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE BODY OF THE HORSE ANATOMICALLY CONSIDERED. 

Were the equine race extinct, nevertheless an anatomist, by study- 
ing its bones, might aflBrm its instincts and assert its uses. Every part 
declares it to be a creature of speed ; while its large cranium and beauti- 




BTUDENTS DISSECTIJfQ AT THE ROTAL VETKBINAaT COLIEOE, LONDON. 

fully-arranged teeth would announce it to have once been connected with 
civilization by its intelligence, by its uses, and its herbivorous habit. The 
provision made for the united strength and elasticity of the spine would 
indicate the care nature had bestowed upon the comfort of a rider; while 

2 (17) 



18 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

the mode in which the members were joined to the body, with the reach 
of limb pecuHar to the skeleton, would equally announce that grace and 
that ease which had characterized the lost animal's movements. 

What lamentation would be poured forth over the absence of such a 
treasure 1 How would poignant regrets be awakened, as science demon- 
strated what onoe were the endowments of an extinct inhabitant of earth ! 
Yet, at the present time, humanity possesses this priceless creature to 
lighten toil and heighten pleasure. But, how few of mankind have ever 
reflected upon the marvelous delicacy of the slave's construction ! It is 
lashed unto exhaustion and worked into deformity. Because of the treat- 
ment it experiences at the hands of the master, whom it serves, it gener- 
ally ceases to exist before its body is matured ; but short as its life may 
be, existence is to it only one continued misery ! 

Even mortal instruments, things of the woi'ld's manufacture, are lim- 
ited in their applications, and capable of being deranged. A spring 
carriage is, obviously, not a suitable conveyance for a load of paving 
stones. He would be esteemed mad, who should appropriate such a 
vehicle to so gross a purpose. The horse's body is more delicately 
arranged and more nicely balanced than the perfection of human skill 
can hope to imitate ; nevertheless, people expose themselves to no rebuke 
when they wrench, cripple, or destroy the beauty which is intrusted to 
their authority. 

Yet, the thing constructed by human hands, if injured, can be repaired, 
and may be thus rendered again equal to its uses. A living animal, how- 
ever, being damaged, is not, on this earth, to be restored to its integrity. 
That has been, and is lost 1 Mortal science may relieve the wound, but 
the scar remains, to conjure up thoughts of that deeper seated derange- 
ment, which is beyond the reach of this world's medicine. The body 
may partially recover and the life may be prolonged; but deformity, 
accompanied by a proportionate loss of function, will testify to the folly 
that deteriorated the perfection which was given as a helpmate. 

Those forms of agony, which a few years ago were more common in 
England than such are even at the present time, evidently declared that 
the horse was altogether unequal to increasing wants and growing de- 
sires of mankind. Neither the fleetness of the courser nor the strength 
of the heavier breed embodied the requirements of the age. Something 
faster and more powerful had become a public necessity ; therefore rail- 
roads were permitted. 

Such persons as can talk of railroads being destined to destroy the 
breed of horses, must suffer under a confusion of ideas. The breed of 
horses may be endangered, as this is being written ; but the source of 
peril lies very far removed from the lines of tramway. The objects, 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 19 

capable of being fulfilled by breathing flesli and by steaming iron, are 
altogether separate and distinct. No living body can aspire to con- 
tend, in strength or in speed, with the results of mechanical contrivance. 
Neither can the forge or the furnace ever hope to produce any combina- 
tion of springs and wheels which can compare with the ease of motion, 
the docility of temper, or the intelligence of spirit that should recommend 
the quadruped to the kindness of its earthly proprietor. 

The horse is the associate of man. It is true, the poor animal can be 
goaded to excessive labor; but the creature becomes degraded when it 
toils beyond the sphere of mortal sympathy. No living animal should 
be subjected to the exactions of avarice. Life was not made to be thus 
debased. What, however, the horse, when properly treated, is capable 
of performing, remains to be hereafter demonstrated. How much it can 
enact, and how greatly it can benefit, when justly treated, the present 
customs refuse the willing drudge a chance of proving. No steed is now 
permitted to grow till its thews and muscles are matured. Before the 
season of its utility can come round, the colt is seized upon by the impa- 
tience of gain, and the baby limbs are distorted by that early affliction 
which forbids the natural powers to be developed. 

We can, however, even by the inspection of the body, discover that it 
is admirably adapted for continuous and prolonged exertion. The main- 
tenance of animal motion chiefly depends on the provision made for 
aerating the blood. In proportion as the vital current can be revivified 
or oxygenated is health promoted by those efforts, which in most bodies 
would, assuredly, induce congestion and death. Age becomes very im- 
portant when the subject is thus considered. Respiration is in youth 
quicker than during adultism, because there is so much more oxygen 
needed when the frame is in a growing state. By working the horse 
before maturity is attained, the animal is obliged to labor when the 
ordinary velocity of the respiration permits of the less marginal speed for 
the breathing apparatus to exert upon extraordinary occasions. Never- 
theless, that the reader may judge correctly of the care nature had be- 
stowed upon the formation of a creature destined for subserviency to 
man, the following engraving is appended. 

The accompanying illustration exhibits the lungs as of large propor- 
tional dimensions ; while the stomach will be recognized as of more than 
an equally diminished capacity. Everybody must have experienced how 
greatly respiration is impeded by a loaded digestion ; and the Common " 
Benefactor, when creating an animal destined to display speed, seems to 
have anticipated the probability of such a contingency. The intestines, 
however, are comparatively of large extent. Into these receptacles the 
horse's food passes, after having perfected the first process of digestion, 



20 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



and there it is subsequently mixed witli the fluid secretion of the bowels, 
whereby the nutritive matter is separated and rendered fit for absorption. 




THB FIGURE OP A HOKSE, POBTRAYINO THE COMPARATIVE IMPORTANCE AND THE RELATIVE SITUATIONS OF 

SOME INTERNAL ORGANS. 

1. The lungs. 2. The stomach. 3. The colon. 4. The diaphragm. 5. The sitnation of the bladder. 



The smallness of the horse's stomach is in itself sufficient evidence that 
the quadruped was designed to be a frequent feeder. It was not intended 
to endure prolonged abstinence ; for almost in every region which the 
animal may canter over, its legitimate food abounds. Man, however, 
frequently starves the creature, that a loaded stomach may not interfere 
with the activity of the respiration ; he, in his ignorance and in his pre- 
sumption, not being willing to trust to such provision as the All-wise 
had made, anticipatory of this accident. At other times, the quadruped 
is suifered to over-gorge, its keeper paying no regard to its requirements. 
After an excessive fast, a quantity of cut food is placed in the manger, 
and the ravenous horse eats, and eats, till its small stomach, being un- 
equal to the reception of much bolted provender, cracks its walls from 
excessive repletion. Such a circumstance does not demonstrate that 
nature was wrong, or that the equine races were formed unequal to 
their purposes; but it satisfactorily establishes that man cannot, with 
impunity, cross the designs or run counter to the institutions of Omnip- 
otence. 

The horse was created to live off the grass of the field. This habit 
necessitated that much ground should be traveled before the appetite 
of so large a body could be appeased ; and the distance was the greater 
as the animal was sent upon the earth a nice feeder — biting oft the juicy 
tops of the herbage, not tearing up roots and all, like the less scrupulous 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 21 

bovine tribe. The time was also lengthened, by the equine race not 
being gifted with a power to ruminate. The ox, having filled the mouth, 
bestows little care upon the comminution of the food ; but the jaw being 
moved twice or thrice, thereby crushing the herbage, so as to form it 
into a pellet, the mouthful is forwarded at once to the rumen. This 
receptacle is large, and is somewhat hastily filled. Then the ox retires 
to a quiet spot and there enjoys its meal ; the grass being regurgitated 
and fully masticated, during which time the animal is said to be " chew- 
ing the cud." The horse has no such power. The food it gathers 
must be prepared by mastication and insalivation before it enters the 
stomach ; consequently, because of the niceness of its appetite, and the 
absolute necessity for each mouthful being separately comminuted, the 
horse, in a free state, has to journey far and to feed long before it can 
lie down and rest. 

The equine race were meant to collect their sustenance from the sur- 
face of the earth ; and, doubtless, the tribe are most at ease when feed- 
ing with the head lowered to the necessary position. A dog naturally 
lowers the mouth when it laps a fluid ; but, if this creature be tempted 
to drink from a saucer held on a level with the ordinary elevation of the 
head, repeated coughing will interrupt the draught and testify to the 
inconvenience experienced by the animal. So, in the instance of the 
horse, we may infer the meal is most relished when the head sinks to 
its gratification ; and, to justify such an inference, anatomy discloses a 
special provision made to that end. Such a proof is, to the author's 
mind, of much more weight than any assertion to the contrary of the 
united British public, as emphasized by the fixed altitude of all the 
mangers throughout the three kingdoms. 

A serious suggestion here forces itself upon the mind of the writer ; 
and it is one the importance of which should recommend it to the con- 
sideration of the public. Laryngeal affections are among the most 
frequent annoyances of every stable, and stand foremost among the 
most vexatious of the many evils which the veterinary surgeon is ex- 
pected to eradicate. 

However, it is proved that if sustenance be swallowed with the head 
at a certain elevation, it must interfere with the most irritable organ 
entering into the composition of the entire body. Then, horse pro- 
prietors would do well to reflect upon the fact, and to say, how far con- 
stantly-repeated provocation naay aggravate or induce the fearful laryn- 
geal maladies to which domesticated horses are peculiarly liable. 

The valves existing in the jugular veins are formed by duplicatures 
of its internal lining membrane ; and they are so arranged as to prevent 
the natural tendencv to regurgitate when the fluid within the vessel 



22 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



moves against gravity. When the head is erect, and the venous cur- 
rent, flowing toward the heart, is of course downward or is favored bj 
gravity, then the valves do not act ; but the passage of the blood forces 
the duplicatures of membrane to remain close against the sides of the 
tube. 

The jugulars conduct the dark-colored blood from the brain ; and as 
that important organ cannot endure the smallest pressure, some special 
provision was imperative to carry away the fluid, and also to anticipate 
the possibility of its return to oppress the sensorium. When the horse 
is grazing, the head is lower than the heart, and it naturally occupies 
that position for the greater portion of the twenty-four hours. During 
all that time the venous current must mount against the influence of 
gravitation ; and to aid the reader in properly understanding the means by 
which this is effected, his attention is invited to the following diagrams. 




A SKETCH, DISPLAYING THE ACTION OF THE jnaCLAB VALVES TTHEN THE HEAD IS LOWEBED TO FEED OFF THE 

GROUND. 



The elevated crest, therefore, presents a clear channel to the vital 
current. For that reason, the violent action or the most rapid pace of 
the animal never produces congestion of its brain. The racer may sink 
from exhaustion, but does not perish from apoplexy. The head, when 
depressed, however, shows the same canal divided by numerous inter- 
secting marks. Such lines are intended to represent the venous valves, 
which assist the blood in its upward journey, and render impossible the 
slightest pressure upon the sensorium. The first thing which strikes 
the reader, upon beholding the arrangement depicted above, is the vast 
number of valves; and this causes him to inquire, where was the 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 23 

necessity for such repeated checks. If the conservation of the brain 
was the only end to be attained, might not that object have been assured 
by a single set of valves ? Such may seem a feasible objection ; but to 
prevent the return current was, as nature appears to have conceived, 
best done by repeated assistance of the onward flow; consequently, 
these numerous valves anticipate the possibility of regurgitation in any 
degree, and provide repeated checks to pressure from the supported 
column of heavy venous blood. 

There remains, however, another provision to be explained. The 
return current has hitherto been spoken of, as though the upward flow 
of fluid was its natural tendency. Still, every person must have per- 
ceived the necessity, when liquid was to be propelled in that direction, 
of something resembling a forcing pump. Such an apparatus nature 
has provided. The head of a healthy animal is depressed only when 
eating or when drinking. During the performance of either function, 
muscles are contracting which compress the soft coats of the veins, and 
thus help to drive the circulation against gravity. 

Thus, during feeding, the head is maintained in a depressed attitude 
for hours together ; and, throughout that space, a most powerful agent 
is in operation. The lower jaw, while the quadruped chances to be 
thus engaged, is in constant motion, being opened and closed either in 
biting or in chewing. When the jaw sinks, the muscles of mastication 
are relaxed, and the venous blood rushes from the cranium into the 
sinuses. But when the bone is raised by those strong motor agents 
which render the bite of a horse so fearful an infliction, the current from 
the brain is for a moment checked, and the contents of the maxillary 
sinuses are energetically propelled up the jugulars. During the first 
half of the action, the valves are in operation, having all the strength 
necessary for the perfect performance of their allotted function; but, 
during the latter part, they are forced against the sides of the vessels by 
the contractive masticatory influence, and cease to act in any way upon 
the internal current of the blood. 

Notwithstanding the strong conviction emphatically asserted by the 
fixed position of the nation's mangers, the author must be obstinate 
enough to disregard human authority, when he has an opportunity of 
studying the living book, written by the unerring hand of nature. 
Yalves, though generally present in veins, are never discovered where 
the position of the vessel or other reason would render such provisions 
unnecessary. The Great Creator often makes one thing to serve more 
than one use ; but never creates when His work can answer no profit- 
able purpose. 

The use of veins is simply that of conduits, to convey the refuse 



24 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

blood back to the heart, whence it is forced into the lungs, and there 
revivified or rendered equal to its many forms of nutrition. This mighty 
change is very simply effected. When the thorax expands, air merely 
enters the lungs to anticipate the vacuum, which otherwise must be 
occasioned by the enlargement of the chest. The air consists chiefly 
of two substances in a gaseous state — of oxygen and of nitrogen. The 
venous blood, being very near to the inhaled air within the lungs, ex- 
tracts the oxygen from it, and in exchange sends forth a quantity of 
carbonic acid, which is voided with the expired breath. 

This change will take place when blood is extracted from the body. 
If the contents of some vein are exposed to the atmosphere, they will 
in time change from a deep modena to a bright scarlet hue. There is, 




A DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OF THE SPECIAL PROVISIONS DISCOVERABLE IN THE HEAD OP A HORSE. 

1. The nostril leading direct to — 2. The larynx, situated at the commencement of the windpipe. 3. The 
tongne. 4. The oesophagus or gullet. 5. The soft palate, which lies upon the tongue and affords a resting- 
place whereon reposes the epiglottis, or the guardian cartilage to the entrance of the Larynx (2). 6. The 
guttural pouches, or large membranous and open sacs, containing nothing but atmospheric air. 7. Nasal 
or frontal sinuses. 

however, this difference which marks the two processes. The altera- 
tion, when quickened by vitality, is instantaneous; but the change, 
when it ensues under human inspection, is slowly, and, as it were, labo- 
riously accomplished. The size of the equine nostrils informs us of the 
ample draughts of air which the animal is fitted to appropriate ; it like- 
wise testifies to the high state of that vitality which could necessitate 
such a provision. Creatures with small nostrils, for instance ox and 
dog, are endowed with a limited capacity as respects nasal respiration. 
Yet, as a recompense, such creatures are formed to inhale through the 
mouth. The horse, however, requires no such faculty, its nostrils are 
ample; and, under ordinary circumstances, the mouth is closed by a 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



as 



1 


T 


1 
1 


^ 




"T^rr 



thick, fleshy screen, which hangs pendulous from the most backward 
portion of the bony palate. 

In the previous diagram, figure 1 indicates the space allotted to the 
nasal chamber, near the external opening to which will be observed the 
numeral 8. The dotted lines surrounding the last figure represent the 
dimensions of a blind pouch, or cul-de-sac, which separates the external 
from the internal wall of the true nostril. The existence of such a pro- 
vision has long been a puzzle to physiologists ; but, would these gentle- 
men have given nature full credit for that care with which the Common 
Parent studies to preserve the beauty of the higher order of His chil- 
dren, and have considered that the horse's :? i 2 
necessity for different quantities of air varies 
with difi'erent times and during different occu- 
pations, they might have sooner comprehended 
the utility of the development. 

Where the false nostril is placed is the only 
poition of the nasal chamber which is not in- 
closed by bone ; consequently it is situated at 
the only place where the cavity admits of dis- 
tention and of contraction. The animal, in a 
passive state, breathes very leisurely ; at such 
times the nostrils would sink inward, or be 
deformed by the unavoidable collapse of the 
wall, were not the false nostril present to per- 
mit its diminution without materially affect- 
ing the external form. But subsequent to 

severe exertion, everybody must have remarked the nostril spasmodically 
strain, ass though each effort would crack the boundaries of the opening. 
At such times the false nostril offers no stubborn opposition to the vio- 
lence of respiration, while it serves to soften down the aspect, which, 
if laid bare, might show too fearfully. 

A varied capacity for admitting air also presupposes a varied capacity 
to alter the dimensions of the passages through which the atmosphere 
travels to the lungs. If the reader will again refer to the facial diagram, 
he will perceive a free space, in the center of which is placed the figure 
6. These spaces (one on either side of the face) represent what are 
termed the guttural pouches, they being merely bladders containing air, 
and communicating separately with each nasal chamber, A bladder 
with an external opening is of course most readily compressible. That 
no doubt may be entertained of the use for which these vacant spaces 
were established, they are placed immediately above the course of the 
atmosphere to the lungs, and would contract or dilate according to its 
volume. 



DIAaRAM OP THE FALSE NOSTRILS. 

1. The septum nasi. 2. The nasal 
chambers. 3. The upper lip. 4. The 
false nostrils. 



26 ANATOMICAL CONSIDEKATIONS. 

Such a condition of parts imagines the windpipe also able to alter its 
dimensions, so that it may be in accord with other structures; and 
anatomy discloses facts which amply support such a supposition. The 
larynx or opening to the windpipe is composed of several pieces of car- 
tilage and of numerous muscles. The presence of the first plastic and 
highly elastic structure is a proof that the larynx is of no fixed shape, 
while the division of the organ into distinct parts, together with the 
internal and external presence of many muscles of motion, is absolute 
confirmation that the larynx was created not only to assume various 
forms, but also to exhibit different capacities, according to the require- 
ments of the animal economy. 

So also with the windpipe itself, and the tubes which proceed from 
it; these are formed of distinct rings, or of separate pieces of elastic 
cartilage so curved as to form rings, but having free overlapping ends, 
which are operated upon by muscular fiber. 

The diagram inserted below accurately represents such a ring; it 
also shows that the springy cartilage is not made of one thickness 
throughout, but is of that form which the mechanic of the present 
time recognizes as that best adapted for the preservation of continued 
elasticity. The shape and the free ends convinces that such a ring 
must always have a tendency to expand, and by this perception we 
recognize the purpose of the muscle, which draws the extremities over 
each other ; thus two opposing forces regulate the capacity of the circle. 




ONE OP THE CARTILAGINOUS KINGS, NUMBERS OF WHICH JOINED TOGETHER FORM THE TRACHEA OR THE 
WINDPIPE OF THE HORSE. 

a One of the cartilages from the trachea of a horse, having free and overlapping extremities. 
h The muscular fiber situated within the ring, which regulates the diameter of the circle. 

The presence of muscular fiber is always absolute proof of motion. 
Where muscle exists and morbid circumstances render motion an impos- 
sibility, the function being destroyed, the motor organ becomes pallid, 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 27 

or suffers atrophy. The existence, therefore, of such a structure in a 
healthy condition is always sufficient proof that the function of expan- 
sion and of contraction was present during life ; thus we reach an abso- 
lute certainty that the air-passages of the horse possess a property of 
adapting themselves to the necessities of the animal. 

Then, looking at these structures, we find them not only free, but so 
composed as to be always open, excepting when the momentary swal- 
lowing of the food causes the larynx to close. To breathe is the primary 
necessity of life. Health cannot be maintained unless the blood is 
sufficiently oxygenated; this fact makes us doubt the national wisdom, 
which persists in thrusting the quadruped into stables, rendered close 
and hot by the products of impurity. Oxygen is always deficient 
where impurity prevails ; and, having seen the necessity of its presence, 
because it is the primary requirement of existence, and not because of 
the warmth or oppression which its absence generates, does the author 
presume to oppose his opinion to the decision apparently approved by 
the entire British public. 

Seeing these provisions made hy nature to preserve the beauty of her 
most graceful quadruped, and remarking how profusely, in various forms, 
loveliness is distributed throughout this earth, we cannot shghtingly 
esteem the attribute which Perfect Knowledge has impressed, as an 
order of merit, upon its creations. Beauty is here spoken of as distinct 
from gaudiness. The term is employed not to represent the luster of 
the beetle or the vividness of the tropical bird, but to portray that har- 
mony of parts and deep-seated perfection which is present only in the 
more elaborate works of the Creator, and which renders the horse, even 
when deprived of its skin, a picture deserving mortal adoration. View- 
ing the world and its inhabitants, we must confess that nothing was 
formed without its uses ; on such a basis, we may safely assert that the 
horse was not made the most beautiful of beasts without intention. 
This quality appeals in a most mysterious and powerful manner to the 
human sympathies. It should influence the mind even more than it 
gratifies the eye, and though avarice may blind humanity to its claims, 
yet even the most hardened cannot witness the destruction of perfection 
without a poignant pang of regret. 

In the head of the animal we discern evidences of the care bestowed 
to preserve a harmony of form. Above the nasal chambers are certain 
hollow spaces, indicated by the figure Y. These empty chambers may 
serve to impart depth to the voice, but as the horse is generally a silent 
creature, such, obviously, must be only a secondary purpose. To pre- 
serve the undulation of the outline was assuredly the primary intent, 
though at the same time the vacancies aid the reverberation of sound, 



28 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

and with other structures also lighten that part of the body in which 
they are situated. 

The passage of the air to the lungs, and the admii-able provisions to 
admit its ingress and its egress, without destroying the mild and charac- 
teristic aspect of the quadruped, having been described, it now becomes 
the author's duty to dwell upon the extraordinary conditions which con- 
serve the passages of the food. Referring again to the diagram here 




A DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OF THE SPECIAL PROVISIONS EISCOVERADLE IN THE HEAD OP A HORSE. 

1. The nostril leading direct to — 2. The larynx, situated at the commencement of the windpipe. 3. The 
tongue. 4. The oesophagus or gullet. 5. The soft palate, which lies upon the tongue and affords a resting- 
place, whereon reposes the epiglottis, or the guardian cartilage to the entrance of the larynx (2). 6. The 
guttural pouches, or large membranous and open sacs, containing nothing but atmospheric air. 7. Nasal 
or frontal sinuses. 

reproduced, we see the mouth, occupied by the tongue, (figure 3,) on the 
base of which organ reposes a dark body, particularized by the figure 5. 
This last is the soft palate, which drops pendulous from the osseous roof 
of the masticatory orifice. Upon the soft palate lies the most forward of 
the laryngeal cartilages, which is anatomically spoken of as the epiglottis ; 
while the most backward of the laryngeal cartilages, which are called the 
aretenoids, repose beneath the roof of the pharynx. This pharynx is the 
enlarged and muscular commencement of the gullet, the situation and 
direction of which channel is notified by the number 4. 

We thus perceive in its course the food is apparently thrice forbidden 
to enter the gullet of the horse. In the first place, there is the soft 
palate, retained firmly in its position by pressure of the epiglottis. The 
second obstacle we recognize in the opening of the larynx; the third 
impediment appears in the aretenoids, that seem to bar all entrance to 
the tube which leads to the stomach. Moreover, the gullet itself being 
a muscular organ, in the passive state of semi-contraction is closed ; 
thus appearing to oppose a further hinderance to the admission of sus- 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 29 

tenance into its pi'oper receptacle. However, upon inquiry, tlie reader 
will discover these provisions, wliicli appear at first glance to be ranged 
against the entrance of nutriment, are in reality only so many elaborate 
protections, all tending to the comfort and well-being of the animal. 

The soft palate so effectually closes the posterior of the mouth as to 
prevent that cavity from being employed to modulate the voice, though 
such a peculiarity does not distinguish all the equine tribe. Everybody 
must have remarked the bray distend the jaws of an ass, whereas tho 
neigh flutters only the nostril of the horse, the different channels through 
which the sound has to emerge fully accounting for the marked contrast 
which is conspicuous in the voices of the animals. Moreover, the horse 
does occasionally vomit ; but, save when the organization is disturbed 
by the agonies of death, the voided matter is generally ejected through 
the nostrils. 

However, the reader will perhaps best understand how the apparently 
closed cavity is rendered subservient to its uses by the process of deglu- 
tition being described. A portion of food is bitten off by the incisors ; 
the substance is, by the action of the tongue, next passed to the molars, 
or is placed between the grinding teeth. There it is thoroughly com- 
minuted. While this is being performed, the saliva is secreted and min- 
gled with the mass, so as to render it quite soft or pultaceous. In this 
state it is formed into a pellet, and is then pressed by the tongue against 
the palate or roof of the mouth. The morsel, being now round and 
soft, is afterward, by a more energetic contraction of the tongue, driven 
against the pendulous palate, which seemingly closes the posterior of 
the orifice. 

The last organ lies in that direction which enables it to offer a formi- 
dable resistance, especially when supported by the base of the tongue, to 
any substance proceeding from the stomach. In the contrary direction 
it is only held down by the epiglottis; that comparatively feeble body is 
forced to yield before the greater contractile power of the lingual organ. 
The epiglottis flies forward, covering the opening to the larynx, in which 
position the posterior cartilages or the aretenoids also fold over the more 
forward protector. A secure floor is thus formed, preventing anything 
from falling into the windpipe, where intrusion of the smallest substance 
would provoke the most alarming spasm ; while a roof to the passage is 
also made by the raised, soft palate, whereby the nasal chambers are 
protected from the encroachment of undigested matters. 

A safe way being thus provided, the pellet is shot into the pharynx, 
which, independently of the will, immediately contracts upon any sub- 
stance coming within its reach, and drives the morsel into the oesophagus 
or gullet. The tube, surprised by the presence of the morsel, is obliged 



30 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

to separate for its reception ; but it immediately closes on the stranger, 
thereby driving it lower down, when, the contractility of the fiber being 
again aroused, it is once more driven onward, and this action is continued 
until the food is safely lodged within the walls of the stomach. 

Few persons can comprehend the above explanation without being 
forcibly impressed by the beauty and the nicety of the whole arrange- 
ment. The elevation of the soft palate closes the nostrils, and at the 
same time provides a floor for the gaping passage tO' the lungs. The 
motion of the soft palate nudges the epiglottis, which lies upon it and 
causes that cartilage to bend over the opening to the larynx. The bow- 
ing down of the epiglottis induces the aretenoids also to stoop, thus 
forming a safe floor to the necessitated passage. Across the chasm, now 
rendered secure, the food is shot into the pharynx and conveyed to the 
stomach, the whole process being accomplished in an instant, for the act 
of swallowing provokes no sensible impediment to the continuance of 
respiration. 

These things, however instructive or amusing they may be when 
related, nevertheless are too little thought of; nor is the horse itself 
suSiciently considered. Were the lessons, which its body should teach 
mankind, properly understood, those abuses, that are at present limited 
to no class, would instantaneously cease to be practiced. Most people 
of this country, however, treat the horse as though it were an original 
inhabitant of the English climate. Rich and poor in this respect are 
equally faulty, save that those are most to blame who, possessing wealth, 
can command the leisure requisite for inquiry, and, being blessed with 
ability to gratify their inclinations, have no excuse for lack of sympathy 
in the pressure of necessity. The great error, however, consists in a 
national carelessness about the matter. The slave is accepted as a prop- 
erty; its life is wasted; its body is abused; man sleeps happy in the 
belief that animals were created for his use. To render them subservient 
to his pleasure is the amount of all that he conceives to be his duty. 
The winter's straw yard and the autumn's run are both follies — sadly 
common, but nevertheless deserving the condemnation of all good or 
thoughtful men. 

The animal carries about its person the signs which testify it once 
roamed within a warmer climate than our northern region. The certifi- 
cate of its origin is legibly written in the eye of the quadruped. This 
organ mutely attests, that the temperate zone was not the birthplace of 
its progenitors. It has long been a captive in Britain ; but the proof of 
its proper dwelling-place no time can obhterate. The eye of the horse, 
like that of the camel, displays a special provision, fitting the creature to 
endure the strongest glare of a tropical sun, even when reflected from a 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 31 

level waste of shining sand ; or, in other words, the first parents of the 
tribe must have careered across some burnino; desert. 





TDE PCPIL OF THE HORSE'S EYE IN THE OPPOSITE STATES OF CONTRACTION AND DILATATION, SHOWING THE 
SITUATION AND THE USE OF THE CORPORA NIGRA. 

The corpora nigra, in the eye of the camel, are black bodies, pendent 
from the margin of the iris. The purpose of so special a provision is not 
apparent, when darkness occasions the opening to dilate ; but when the 
glare is powerful — so powerful as to induce blindness even in the natives 
of those lands where a concentrated light is possible — then the intent of 
its Beneficent Creator becomes apparent. 

The pupil of the horse's eye is never circular, being, when much 
dilated, rather oblong in figure ; but, when exposed to the direct rays of 
the summer's sun, the opening energetically contracts. Then the pupil 
is best represented by a mere line ; for the edges of the iris at such a 
season seemingly touch each other. In this condition, the uses of the 
corpora nigra can hardly be mistaken : the little black bodies appear to 
fit into one another, forming apparently an impenetrable network opposed 
to the entrance of too strong a glare. 

Let the author and the reader, however, temperately consider this 
matter. The pupil in the eye of the horse is not more distant than two 
inches from the origin of the optic nerve. "When the division to be seen 
through is so close, and the object to be viewed is exhibited under the 
strongest natural light, the merest crevice will be equal to all the pur- 
poses of perfect vision. The full glare of the sun alone occasioning the 
horse's pupil to contract, that which causes the opening to almost shut 
also provides the excess of light, which alone could render useful that 
narrow division through which objects must be recognized; while the 
dark bodies, being stationed before the point of sight, answer the pur- 
pose of the smoke which lads load upon glass when they are ambitious 
of gazing at the sun. 

The reader must have remarked the pupillary line through which the 
domestic eat exercises perfect vision during the bright noon of a mid- 
summer day. The eye of the feline race is, however, possessed of no 
other protection. The contraction may be the effect of weakness of 



32 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

sight; at all events, the author thinks he may conclude the far-famed 
eye of the cat to be inferior to that of a hoi'se. The domestic mouser is 
popularly said to see in the dark; the steed has been long known to 
penetrate the gloom which sets the strained vision of its master at de- 
fiance ; but it remains to be granted that both horse and cat are equally 
fitted to roam by night. The habits of the herbivorous creature would, 
however, assert it to be possessed of such a faculty ; and the anatomist 
discovers in the visual organ of the animal a provision specially adapting 
it for these peregrinations. 

Upon the upper and forward surface of the inner, dark chamber, and 
so placed as to catch, to concentrate, and to reflect every stray ray of 
light upon the optic nerve, the tapidum lucidum is discovered within the 
globe of the horse's eye. This structure is, after death, very bright or of 
metallic luster, and, because of its concave form, is admirably adapted to 
its particular function. That no doubt may remain as to the design of 
such a provision, the tapidum lucidum is found only within the eyes 
of those quadrupeds created to roam by night. It is altogether absent 
in such animals as were destined to move about during daylight. 




DIAGRAM, EXPOSING THE INTERIOR OP THE HORSE'S EYE, AND DISPLAYING THE SITUATION OF THE TAPIDUM 
LUCIDUM, OR QL0S3T SURFACE DEVELOPED WITHIN THE ORGAN. 

The tapidum lucidum, theretore, viewed in conjunction with the cor- 
pora nigra, becomes an inferential proof that the horse originally inhab- 
ited some land in which the coolness of the night offered the greatest 
temptation for pleasant pasturage. The Mighty Benefactor, conse- 
quently, formed His creature to enjoy the bounties among which it was 
permitted to roam. We know the cat was imported from the tropics ; 
and, seeing that the eyes of both animals, in one marked particular, 
resemble each other, we may conjecture the horse originally inhabited a 



ANATOMICAL CONSID-ERATIONS. 33 

warmer climate; while the likeness between the equine race and "th§ 
ship of the desert" demonstrates that that locality was the hottest /)ortion 
of the earth. 

The eye of the horse is also provided with a power which could sel- 
dom be needed in .these Nt)rthern climes, where the fleetness of the 
equine tribe might readily set at defiance the comparative feebleness of 
all the predatory beasts of prey. Besides, the wooded state of this 
country must have rendered the presence of telescopic vision unneces- 
sary. Upon the far-stretching level of the desert, however, where 
larger and more ferocious animals prowl by night, the possession of 
such a faculty would be a needed protection. Accordingly, we find the 
interior of the globe to consist chiefly of water, the outward covering 
being formed of a tough substance, which is easily compressible ; while 
all the hidden portion of the exterior is enveloped by muscular fiber. 

Situated directly upon the forward portion of the ball are the two 
oblique muscles. These are inserted at opposite places, and each pulls 
in a contrary direction to the other. The two, simultaneously acting, 
could not move the organ, but would, obviously, tend to fix it or to 
render the globe stationary. The outer substance of the horse's eyes 
is composed of a thick and pliable covering, purely tendinous in char- 
acter. The interior consists of fluid perfectly pure and transparent. At 
the back of all is placed the optic nerve ; while the exterior is enveloped 
by several thick and straight muscles. 




diagram, displatixq the coatinq of muscular fiber 'wnicn covers the soft globe of the 

horse's ETE. 

The motor agents are endowed with an ability to contract or to 
shorten in their reach. When parts of this nature operate upon a 
plastic substance, which is filled only with a fluid, they must of neces- 
sity tend to alter the shape of that body on which they repose. The 
oblique muscles act to prevent rotation ; the pressure, therefore, can 
only compress, elongate, and force backward the ball of the eye. By 
such a capacity that telescopic property is produced which man feebly 
imitates by a complex and costly machine. 

3 



34 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

Anatomy also discovers another important function proper to tlie eye 
of the horse, which equally indicates a sandy plain to have been the 
original habitat of the tribe. 

The soft sand of the Southern region would form a soil over which 
the equine foot could safely travel. The liorn, in j^n unprotected state, 
was created to journey over so yielding and so dry a surface. Harder 
ground is poorly suited to the tread of the animal, a fact w6ll established 
by the brittle hoof being among the recognized diseases of this coun- 
try ; while a wet soil is by no means advantageous, which circumstance 
is amply illustrated by the weak horn characteristic of those animals 
reared on the fens of Lincolnshire. The level of the desert presented 
that combination of qualities which could render the exhibition of its 
speed a delight to the unbroken quadruped ; while the warmth of the 
climate would afford the medium in which a lustrous coat testifies to 
the health of a beautiful body. 

In opposition to the above inference is th>e recorded fact that, when 
English horses were transported as cavalry into Egypt, the dryness of 
the climate frequently caused the hoofs so to crack as to render the 
animals totally useless. . This circumstance, when first learned, appears 
to weigh heavily against the conclusion toward which the author's 
arguments were tending. In reality, however, it establishes nothing; 
it fades before rational investigation. A life, after having left its native 
country, does not necessarily thrive when it revisits the land of its 
origin. Englishmen, who have spent their youth in India, generally 
return to the variableness and to the humidity of this climate, and com- 
plain of the country which, when it was quitted, appeared to be cursed 
with no evil properties. Negroes captured by British cruisers, and set 
free on the far-famed colony of emancipation, are ascertained to perish 
the more rapidly on their return to Africa. These poor people are said 
to sink more speedily than even Europeans succumb before the clime of 
flame. 

The speed of the horse would enable the quadruped to travel with 
comparative ease between those remote spots of verdure which lie scat- 
tered throughout the desert. The distance which divides these luxuriant 
localities could present no insurmountable obstacle to the unburdened 
steed, since the domesticated animal has carried its rider more than one 
hundred miles. The horse can endure long fasts, and even sustain 
severe thirst — the colon being a portion of the bowel generally devoted 
to the store of liquid nutriment; but the distance must have been 
accomplished in a cloud of sand sufficiently dense to blind the creature 
which traveled in the center of a moving herd. 

The eye of the horse, however, is by nature provided with f? protec- 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



35 




tion against so terrible an affliction, which would expose any wild 
animal to a fearful death. The outer mem- 
brane of the eye is almost limited to cover- 
ing the more forward or transparent surface, 
being thence reflected upon the interior of 
the eyelids. This membrane, when in a 
single layer, is incapable of communicating 
to the sensorium more than a feeling of un- 
easiness. When single, it may be touched, 
burnt, and cut, without producing actual 
pain ; but the unpleasant sensation provokes 
a desire to wink, and the instant the lid 
descends upon the globe, or from the mo- 
ment when two surfaces of the membrane 
are in apposition, agony ensues. 

The membrane now under consideration 
renders it an impossibility for any substance 
to get "into the eye;" the pain present, 
when such an assertion is commonly made, 
gives the strongest proof that the foreign 
body is retained between two surfaces of 
that delicate structure which is called con- 
junctiva. Dryness is, however, destructive of the feeling and of the 
transparency of this membrane. Xature, therefore, has created a special 
gland for assuring its perpetual moisture. This last body is situated 
immediately beneath the surface, under the upper lid and toward the 
outer corner of the eye. It is, on ordinary occasions, stimulated to 
send forth its secretion by the act of winking; and the outer corner 
being situated above the inner corner of the horse's eye, the moisture 
is, by the motion of the lid, instantaneously brushed over the circular 
globe. 

The gland of the horse, however, has a distinct use not shared by any 
similar provision to be found in the eye of man. In the human being, 
grief or pain provokes the secretion ; these are always accompanied by 
floods of tears. Some writers assert they have witnessed agony induce 
tears in the quadruped ; but the author has seen fearful operations in- 
flicted on the noble animal — he has heard huge groans testify to the 
sufferings endured ; yet he has never beheld the eye overflow, or seen 
anything present which approximated to weeping. 

Pain, when occasioned by some foreign body between the two layers 
of membrane, produces not weeping, but a positive overflow of liquid, 
the purpose of which will be best explained after the reader has been 



DIAGRAM, EXPLANATORY OF THE SITUA- 
TION OF THE lACHRTMAL GLAND, OR 
THE SOURCE OF TE.\fiS, AND OF OTHER 
PARTS PROPER TO THE HORSE'S EYE. 

a. The outer angle, b. The puncta 
lachrynialis, or round body, situated at 
the inner angle of the eye. c. The lach- 
rymal gland, covered by the upper lid 
and placed near the outer angle of the 
eye. e e. The position, extent, and 
doubling of the conjunctiva. T)r of the 
investing mucous membrane, which 
envelops the outer portion of the 
globe and lines the lids. 



St^ 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



made acquainted witli a particular organ situated at the inner angle of 
the eye. 

The lower corner of the organ is characterized by a round body, 
which, being enveloped in a single layer of membrane, is strictly with- 
out sensation. Upon this body the grime of the human eye accumu- 
lates, and we shall shortly perceive that 
its presence in the horse is not without 
a purpose. Next to the foregoing de- 
velopment, and so placed as to accu- 
rately fit the globe, is a structure which 
anatomists name the cartilago nictitans, 
or the winking cartilage. The more 
forward portion of this cartilage pos- 
sesses a fine edge, while its base pre- 
sents a broad surface, which reposes 
upon the fat at the back of the orbit. 
Now, as fat is not compressible by 
ordinary force, whenever the muscles draw the globe backward, the 
adipose matter is driven forward ; this last cames with it the cartilago 
nictitans, which is consequently projected suddenly over the surface of 
the globe. But when the muscles relax, the fat resumes its original 
place, and with it the cartilage also retires. 




THE CARTILAGO NICTITANS, WHEN REMOVED 
FROM THE EYE OF A HORSE. 




DIAGRAM, TO ILLUSTRATE THE ACTION OP THE CARTILAGO NICTITANS UPON THE HORSE's ErS. 



When any foreign body gets between the two layers of membrane, 
instant winking results ; the gland, stimulated by the motion of the lid, 
sends forth a gush of liquid. It is not simply a tear or two, but a 
deluge of fluid is emitted; this flood, aided by the action of the lid. 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 3!l 

carries the foreign substance in the course of gravity, or from the exter- 
nal toward the internal corner of the globe. While this is taking place, 
the pain also excites the powerful muscles of the eye to spasmodic 
activity. With every spasm the fat is displaced, and the cartilage darts 
from the inner corner partially over the round surface of the eyeball. 
The process continues until the substance is partly brushed and partly 
washed to within the range of the fine anterior edge of the cartilage ; 
when, by its withdrawal, the foreign particle is lodged upon the round 
insensitive body developed at the inner corner of the eye. Toward the 
last point the tears naturally tend, and any exciting substance, when 
there placed, is soon floated on to the hair of the cheek. 

By joining these many proofs, we gain a moral certainty concerning 
the region whence the horse originated. The eye is seen to be gifted 
not only with a special provision against the glare of the desert, but it 
also possesses a peculiar development fitting the animal to enjoy the 
cool pasturage of the night. The eye is likewise endowed with a tele- 
scopic power suited to sweep the far-stretching horizon of the sandy 
waste. Moreover, the organ discloses a special apparatus evidently 
designed to overcome those accidents to which inhabitants of arid 
plains, when rapidly traveling long distances, and in large herds, were 
exposed. 

The reader, perhaps, somewhat wearied by this lengthened descrip- 
tion, may, however, be inclined to exclaim, " So that we possess the 
horse, what care we whence the beast was derived ?" There can be no 
crumb of knowledge so small, but it is worth man's while to stoop and 
pick up the treasure. Its uses may not be apparent at the time of its 
discovery, but its application is certain before long to repay the person 
who prizes it. Taking the instance just narrated about the horse, an 
assured knowledge of the land whence the beautiful stranger came 
enables man the better to feel for its requirements ; attention to the wel- 
fare of its life will be repaid b}^ more lasting service to the master who 
claims it as a propei'ty. By disregarding this teaching, we subject the 
quadruped to suffering, which cramps the limbs, limits the utility, and 
shortens the existence, thus stinting the worth and curtailing the lease 
of the possession. 

When writing the foregoing, the author is aware that gentlemen of 
known probity have reported the existence of herds of wild horses career- 
ing free and unbroken over the plains of Asia. Such was formerly said 
to be the case, and was also credited as an established fact with regard 
to Southern America. Subsequent inquiry, however, has shown that 
the wild animals of the pampas are no more than neglected flocks roam- 
ing, apparently without an owner, but which, in reality, are allowed thus 



38 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



to gain a cheap livelihood by a careless proprietor. These American 
herds are liable to the claim of some man, almost as wild as the animals 
themselves; so also the reported Asian quadrupeds turn out to be the 
recognized possession of some wandering Tartar. 

However, to leave the consideration of particular parts, and to view 
the entire body anatomically, the vertebree or spinal chain, as forming 
the base of the skeleton, becomes of primary importance. The back- 
bone of the horse consists of various pieces, so firmly held together by 
interlacing ligaments and muscles that students, when desirous of divid- 
ing the spine of a dead animal, often find it easier- to saw the bones 
asunder than to separate them with the knife. The neck is composed 
of seven bones ; the back is formed by eighteen vertebrae ; the loins 
consist of six pieces, and the sacrum is made up of five distinct parts, 
although long before adultism all of these last are united by osseous 
junction. 




SOME OF THE DESP-SEATED MTJSCIES IMJIBDIATELT INTESTIXG THE SPINE OF THE HORSE. 

1. The hair. 2. The skin. 3. The adipose, or fatty tissue directly under the skin. 4. The bursiE mucosae, 
or synovial sacks placed above each dors.il spine. 5. The yellow, elastic ligament connecting the dorsal 
spines together. 6. Tlie spines of the dorsal vertebra;. 7. The semi-spinalis dorsi muscle. 8. The heads of 
the ribs. 9. The levatores costarum muscle. 10. The ribs. 

The sacrum, therefore, is not reckoned among the true vertebrae, the 
number of which, however, amounts to thirty-two. Of these many divi- 
sions, the bones of the neck alone are not subject to deviations. The 
lumbar may be five or seven, and the dorsal limitation is either one 
above or one below the usual amount, neither of which varieties are of 
very rare occurrence. The links of the back -bone differ in form and in 
function. The dorsal vertebrae seem, at first sight, to possess no lateral 
processes; whereas in the lumbar region these developments are so ex- 
tended as to constitute the principal features of the several parts. So 
also the two first bones of the neck enjoy great motion, and all the links 
of the neck -are very far from stationary. But the parts of the back, on 
the contrary, are all but fixed; yet, although each is endowed with a 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 39 

very limited movement, tlie whole is gifted with an evident elasticity 
which affords an easy seat to the rider. 




THE SPINE OF THE HOUSE, OR THE BASIS OF ITS ANATOMICAL FEAMEWOEK. 

Along the top of the back-bone runs a strong cord of yellow, elastic 
fiber, which unites the several parts, holding these firmly together as one 
whole. The elastic cord, however, passes directly from the last dorsal 
spine, to be fixed into the back portion of the skull, thus skipping over 
all the bones of the neck. The fibers of this cord are longitudinally 
arranged ; and however elastic such a substance may be, the dorsal 
arrangement would not allow of that freedom of motion which was 
requisite in the neck of an animal which was to crop its food from the 
surface of the earth. 

The necessity, however, was fully met by an elastic cloth being, as it 
were, thrown over the cord, and extending thence to the bones of the 
neck. By this arrangement, frequent attachments were avoided and 
grace of outline was preserved, while no deterioration was made in that 
provision by means of which the heavy head is supported without ap- 
parent strain upon the muscular fiber. One end of the elastic expansion 
being inserted into the cervical bones, all the ease and beauty of move- 
inent is rendered possible by the retracjtile property of the cloth-like liga- 
ment being fully equal to the sustenance of the weight, but not strong 
enough to resist the action of the muscles when excited. Thus, the 
muscles situated at the base of the neck iferve to depress the head ; the 
elastic cloth answers as a counterpoising force, which steadies the move- 
ment ; the action of the motor agents near the crest, aided by the liga- 
mentous elasticity of the neck, serve to elevate the part, while the mus- 
cular power at the base of the bones regulates and guides the upward 
motion. 

But the reader may be desirous to learn how far the back of the animal 
is suited to endure the weight of the rider. The bones of the spine, not 



40 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



being joined by osseous union, may give solidity to the part ; but it must 
be self-evident the chain possesses no inherent power to sustain the 
smallest pressure. Therefore, the body of the rider, when placed upon 
the back, cannot be upheld by bone alone. The weight must repose 
upon the muscles and the ligaments by which the solid parts are kept 
together. Man, therefore, when mounted upon a horse, is seated upon 
elastic substances, animated by the powers of vitality. This circumstance 
readily accounts for the pleasurable feelings and the lightness of spirit 
communicated to the master when within the saddle ; although the deli- 
cacy of the structures on which the burden is cast should also instruct 
that an elaborately and a delicately organized body ought to be shielded 
from labor until age has confirmed and strengthened the several portions 
of the frame. 

When contemplating the uses for which the quadruped was created, 
we perceive the necessity of that huge mass of muscular fiber with which 
the back is cushioned. We also recognize the beauty of intention which 
those numerous supports, called ribs, embody and declare. These props, 
eighteen on either side, must greatly strengthen the main structure, 
although each is of a loose texture, and every one is more or less pliable. 
The innate property of elasticity belonging to the horse's ribs seems to 
have been long known to country urchins, who, out of these bones, have 




THE THORACIC FRAMEWORK OF THE HORSE. 

Showing the manner in which the ribs spring from the spine to unite upon the bone of the breast. 

been accustomed to form bows whence to propel juvenile arrows. Na- 
ture, however, seems not to have been satisfied with this provision, for 
the inferior portion of the ribs consists of cartilage, Avhich anatomists 
speak of as the most elastic substance in the body ; this yielding termin- 
ation rests on the sternum or breast-bone, a structure more than three 
parts of which are composed of the last-named material. 

The manner in which the fore limb is united to the trunk likewise 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



41 



ofifers matter for the reader's admiration. Considering that the horse is 
a beast of burden, man, were he designing a creature fitted for such uses, 
would assuredly have sought to gain strength by the insertion of bone. 
Bone, however, would have interfered with that agility which, no less 
than strength, is an attribute of the horse's body. The presence even of 
a clavicle joming the shoulder to the thorax would have exposed a jump- 
ing quadruped to repeated fractures. Nature, therefore, bound the parts 
together by interlacing fibers. And to afford an idea of the marvelous 
care bestowed on this arrangement, the following diagram is submitted 
to the contemplation of the reader. 




SOME OF THE MUSCLES WHICH ATTACH THE FOEE LIMB TO THE TEUNS. 

Three muscles have already been removed, viz., the panniculus carnosus, the levator humeri, and the 
latissimus dorsi. 

1. The trapezius. 2. The seratus magnus. 3. The subscapulo hj'oideus. 4. The rhomboideus. 5. The 
pcctoralis amicus. 6. The anterior portion of the pectoralis magnus. 7. The pectoralis parvus. 8. The 
pectoralis transversus. 

The rider, therefore, when mounted on a horse, is not only seated upon 
fleshy and ligamentous fiber, and upheld by pliable bone based upon elas- 
tic cartilage, but as the thorax is supported by the anterior extremity, he 
actually swings upon the strongest and most yielding substance known 
throughout animated nature. Could mortal ingenuity, by the exercise 
of any force or duration of thought, have perfected so exquisite a work? 
But the mind is abased and humbled before the proofs of Superior Wis- 
dom, when we find that all hitherto made known is but a part of the 
lavish provision bestowed upon the perfection of God's most beautiful 
gift to man. 

The bones within the fore limb are not self-sustaining. Remove their 
coverings, and they will not retain their several places, but will fall in a 
heap upon the earth. The fact pi'oves that the osseous framework. 



42 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



although it confers solidity upon the body, is nevertheless upheld by 
the structures with which it is enveloped. The bony column, however, 
when united and bound together, exhibits an intention ofbestowing elas- 
ticity quite as much as of conferring strength. In the first place, the 
solid column is crowned by a broad but thin plate of cartilage, the yield- 
ing property of which has already been dilated upon; so that the trunk 
not only swings upon living fiber, but the primary weight is endured by 
what anatomists designate "the most elastic substance in the body," of 
a shape and form which develops to the uttermost its bending property. 
The arrangement of the shoulder-blade and the bone on which it rests 
being angular, evidently contemplates a yielding to any force coming 
from above. The two next bones cannot be viewed as meant solely for 
strength ; though the several parts of the knee and shank are slightly 
columnar in their order, nevertheless the pastern 
bones again display an intent to yield rather than 
a design at gaining decided resistance. Yet, even 
there remains further food for contemplation when 
viewing these dry bones of a quadruped. The 
shock, of which the rider complains when doomed 
to cross the trunk of some poor animal whose 
body hals been disorganized by abuse, is occa- 
sioned by the bones having been, through dis- 
ease, thrown from their natural positions. 

Engineers well know that sand will oppose the 
force of a cannon ball, the power being rapidly 
exhausted which has to travel through numerous 
separated particles. Each grain of sand, there- 
fore, being distinct, a bag of that substance ofiers 
a good preventive to the concussion produced 
by the explosive force of gunpowder. But the 
reader, when endeavoring to ascertain tiie pro- 
visions instituted by Benevolence to save the 
equestrian from concussion, can at once perceive 
the purpose for which the osseous support of the 
limb was formed of several pieces, as well as ap- 
preciate the beauty and grace of motion which is 
thereby assured. 
Looking at the illustration, we observe that certain of the component 
solids of the limbs are altogether out of the perpendicular, and conse- 
quently must receive other support than is derived from the bone imme- 
diately below them. Indeed, no portion of the structure is decidedly 
columnar in its arrangement. Either the parts are crooked, or they lean 




THE BONES OF TIIE FOUE LIMB. 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



43 



in a direction from the plummet line. The angularity of the two top- 
most pieces can, however, not possibly escape notice; neither can the 
slanting position of the pastern bones fail to attract attention. Noting 
these peculiarities, the reader recognizes that the 
bones of the fore extremity cannot be self-sus- 
taining, but they must be upheld or retained in 
their relative situations by the structures which 
surround them in the living subject. 

The scapula and humerus, or the two topmost 
bones, are rendered firm by the joint action of 
the powerful extensor and flexor muscles apper- 
taining to the shoulder. The pastern bones trans- 
fer their weight to the strong tendon which passes 
immediately under their lower surfaces. The other 
bones are held in their situations by the energetic 
contractility of the muscles which embrace them. 
Hence it is obvious the rider, when seated on the 
back of a horse, is not upheld by any osseous re- 
sistance. His burden reposes upon living fiber. 
The bone limits the sphere of contractility, and 
thus gives firmness to the limbs ; but it endures 
no portion of the weight. So exquisitely has na- 
ture adapted her creature to its uses, that in the 
horse man is provided with a means of convey- 
ance remarkable for fleetness, but more wonderful 
for the elastic and buoyant seat which an admi- 
rable body affords to an ungrateful master. 

Had weight been cast upon bone, the shock 
comnmnicated by placing the foot upon the ground would have been so 
powerful as must have made the saddle a seat of torture. This is no 
speculative conjecture, but it is a deduction drawn from positive fact. 
Hard work causes the pastern bones to quit the slant, which is their 
natural position, and to assume a more upright direction. They very 
rarely become actually perpendicular; but as they verge toward that 
attitude, so as partially to transfer their weight from the tendon to one 
another, the jar communicated to the rider becomes most distressing. 
The tendons of the foreleg are, therefore, of all importance ; the utility 
of these structures cannot be better illustrated than by appealing to the 
terrible effects which ensue upon injury to these organs. 

However, that the reader may fully appreciate the simplicity and the 
seeming complexity developed in the various arrangements exposed upon 
dissection, the next illustration is inserted, against which numerous lines 




TOE PRINCIPAL PLEXOE TEN- 
DONS OP THE FORr.LEO. 

1. The perforana. 2. The per- 
foratus. -3,4. Accessory niusclee. 
5, 6. Restraining ligaments. 7. 
The peilal cartilage divided. 8. 
The narictUar bone. 



44 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



are fixed. Those marks indicate tlie points where a substance, like to 
white of egg, is interposed between the extremities of the bones. Each 
separate bone thus not only rests upon a liquid, but the ends of these 
formations are likewise tipped with cartilage, thus 
doubly securing the ease of progression. Nor 
have the perfection of these various arrangements 
received full justice, for concussion of the foot has 
not only to travel through different bones tipped 
by cartilage and separated by the interposition of 
a fluid, but it also has to progress through the 
various structures of which the limb itself is com- 
posed, and to travel in different directions. 

So elaborate an arrangement, or one better 
fitted to answer its intention, no human study 
could invent. Man has for ages labored to dis- 
arrange the parts thus admirably adjusted ; when 
so employed, he has only followed the example 
of the savage who destroys the product he is in- 
capable of understanding. No injury, no wrong, 
no cruelty can be conceived which barbarity has 
not inflicted on the most generous of man's many 
willing slaves. While this has been going for- 
ward, nations, at a vast outlay, have retained 
expensive establishments to entreat the mercies 
of a Superior to be lavished upon themselves, 
and at the moment these people were boasting 
aloud of their refined feelings or of their exalted 
civilization, they have been incapable of sympa- 
thizing with the agony which was imprisoned within the walls of their 
premises. 

Looking toward the quarters of the horse, we perceive the spines of 
the lumbar and sacral bones arranged in so peculiar a manner as to 
excite remark. Those of the loins bend forward, while those of the 
haunch incline backward, thus leaving a free space dividing the upper- 
most bones of two neighboring regions. There must be a reason for so 
evident a design. Inspecting the last lumbar bone, we ascertain it to be 
united by its lateral processes, yet it does not touch the first sacral body, 
all other parts of the chain joining at their centers. 

Here is cause for reflection ! What takes place at this spot which 
could render imperative such an arrangement? In what action is the 
inclination of the trunk so opposite to the position of the quarters as to 
render imperative such a special provision as is here exemplified in the 




THE artist's idea OF A HORSE'S 
FORE LIMB. 

The lines indicate the places 
where synovia (or a fluid re- 
sembling white of egg) is in- 
terposed between the different 
structures. • 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



45 



skeleton ? In prancing, in rearing, and in jumping, the hind legs are 
firmly planted upon the earth ; then, by exertion of the powerful mus- 
cles of the quarters, the forward trunk is 
raised. This action could not have been 
exhibited had the spines of the sacral bones 
ranged in the same direction as those of the 
lumbar vertebras ; and to enforce the reason 
of this evident provision a free space char- 
acterizes this particular joint, others being 
formed by the interposition of cartilage. 

The skeleton of the quarters is charac- 
terized by further distinctive peculiarities. 
The sacral bones are fixed one to another, 
and joining them at the spine is the huge 
hip-bone. This is the heaviest of the many 
weighty pieces which compose the osseous 
frame of the horse. It is irregular in form, 
and remarkable for an unusually rugged 
exterior. An anatomist, by simply inspect- 
ing it, could designate its uses, so emphat- 
ically is everywhere written the origin and 
insertion of powerful motor muscles. In 
every ridge, in every indentation, in every 
inequality anatomy discovers such a pur- 
pose; thus, when "the gnarled and bossy" 

developments upon this bone are viewed in conjunction with the solid 
and uneven appearance of the lower osseous supports of the hind limb, 
no person properly instructed can doubt that the quarters are peculiarly 
the seat of muscular power in the equine race. « 

Then the angular arrangement of the bones suggests the immediate 
purpose of flexion and extension. "Yes," interrupts the reader, "that 
is true ; but supposing the loose bones of the skeleton only to exist, what 
was to suggest the angularity of arrangement ?" Such a fact could be 
thus readily ascertained. The bodies of other animals would inform the 
anatomist of the relative situations of the stifle and the elbgw joints, 
while the different lengths and points of bearing in the fore and hind 
extremities would instruct him concerning all the rest. 

But no knowledge could enable the anatomist to infer the gracefulness 
of form and flow of line which characterizes the body of the horse, even 
when deprived of its outward investment. Here is a sketch of the quar- 
ter after partial dissection. It scarcely awakens the disgust which ana- 
tomical labors generally create. The elegance which distinguishes the 




THE BONES OF THE HIND EXTREMITY. 



46 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 




THE HIND QUARTER OF A HORSE, FROM 
WHICH THE SKIN HAS BEEN REMOVED. 



living creature is hardly lost — certainly it is not entirely destroyed — and 
the author is acquainted with no other body which could equally endure 
so harsh a test. 

The inferior bones of the subjoined sketch lead to the foot; but as the 

osseous structure of this part was illus- 
trated in a previous sketch, and as the 
fore and hind feet of the horse are in the 
leading particulars alike, the author will 
not fill valuable space by unnecessary 
repetition. However, the hind foot of 
the horse being the point whence all the 
strain of propulsion must proceed, the 
part, from such a cause alone, will be 
liable to certain distortions. The evils 
engendered by the cruel impatience of 
mankind, which forces the colt into too 
early labor, causes the natural position 
of the member to become altered. The 
pastern bones grow to be erect, and, 
should the toil still be enforced, the 
shank bone afterward projects. If these warnings are disregarded, inhu- 
manity provokes the heels to be drawn upward, and a valuable helpmate 
is thus incapacitated from assisting man in his earthly task. 

While writing of the horse, it should not be forgotten that in this coun- 
try there is another animal which properly belongs to the equine race, 
and which is liable to most of the evils as well as worthy of much of 
the commendation that has been already pronounced, as though these 
referred only to one specimen of the tribe. The donkey is much misun- 
derstood. Because its name has become a figure of reproach, no writer 
hitherto has dilated seriously upon its requirements, although several 
have been ignorantly sentimental, where suffering needed only truth to 
plead in its behalf. The animal must have its uses, or its breed would 
not be preserved. 

The fact establishes that the creature is of service to mankind, since 
the life, whose season of utility has expired, like the dodo, soon ceases to 
exist. It is, however, chiefly the property of those whose feelings are 
subject to their necessities. The purchase of such a chattel is compara- 
tively easy ; the food is the refuse of the stable ; but the work is often 
disproportionately heavy, for the ass too frequently belongs to those 
whose daily round of toil would tax the strength of the largest horse. 

The prejudice which encircles this miserable being appears to be coun- 
tenanced even in the dissecting rooms of the veterinary profess^.on. A nat- 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 47 

omy is a science the only merit of which depends upon its being a hteral 
record of facts ; yet students, at the before-mentioned places, are fond of 
alluding to the larynx of the ass, as displaying a peculiar development, 
which accounts for the difference of voice between the last-named animal 
and the horse. The author could never discover such a curiosity, nor 
is any necessary, whtli the peculiarity of the two sounds is attentively 
noticed. One is a nasal tone, modulated by the flutter of the nostrils ; 
the other is a harsh, grating noise, produced by energetically inhaling 
and expelling the atmosphere through the extended pipe of the animal's 
trachea. 

The donkey labors, however, beyond the care of its enslaver and with- 
out the region of human sympathy. Be its toil exhaustive, let it work 
without cessation throughout the day and far into the night, no eye 
regards its fatigue with commiseration. It is an object only to laugh at. 
The popular belief is, that the tribe is so peculiarly hardy as to be alto- 
gether removed from the necessities, the liabilities, or the accidents com- 
mon to every other form of life. All grades of existence which men 
please to neglect, they generally designate as "hardy." Human beings, 
however, notoriously become less "hardy" as knowledge is enlarged and 
as life becomes better cared for. Will the time ever arrive when j^ercep- 
tion can embrace that which we now view only as an object of fun, and 
when the donkey will be regarded as entitled to share the consideration 
bestowed upon all the other inhabitants of earth ? 

The country is not secure, the people are not released from barbarism, 
while the pressure of want can blind the nation to the lawful needs of 
the lives which surround and which serve it. Civilization must be far 
from perfected, when an inquiry concerning the man who has beheld a 
dead donkey can make a large assemblage laugh. The author has, 
however, known poor families to be plunged into deep distress because 
the assinine form of existence was not immortal. His experience may, 
probably, be peculiar, but it is opposed to the sjale jest of our theaters; 
for when he was demonstrator at the Royal Veterinary College, he used 
to dispute with the man who supplied donkeys for the pupils to dissect, 
whether the institution should or should not bear the loss of such as died 
before their lives were required b}^ the school. These creatures were 
bought at Smithfield, and brought to Saint Pancras for animals enjoying 
health ; they were wanted to endure but a few days ; yet the author has 
seen three carcasses anticipate this brief interval of permitted existence. 

The author can further testify that, among the scores of carcasses 
which he has dissected, he never examined the body of a donkey, how- 
ever young it might have been, that he did not encounter appalling 
proofs of internal injuries — injuries which had resulted in change of 



48 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



structure, and which would have consigned the horse to the knacker's 
yard. Yet the animals thus maimed were working up to the date of 
purchase ; the inability to move was attributed to the obstinacy which 
is generously supposed to characterize the ill-treated animal, and the 
blows fell heavier in proportion as its actual condition should have 
appealed to human forbearance. ? 




STABLED rOE THE NIGHT. 



To properly comprehend the sufferings of the quadruped, we must 
know the country whence it is derived, and be acquainted with the soil 
it is fitted to inhabit. The wild ass delights in the sandy desert of a 
tropical region, and for the products of such a locality a taste is, by the 
English representative, retained. It lives and thrives upon the spon- 
taneous herbage of the arid waste. The heat, under which other forms 
of life appear to languish, fills the donkey with animation. The com- 
parative size of its intestines fit it to store away that amount of water 
which in the land of its nativity is proverbially scarce. 

The donkey in England is dragged into a wintry climate, rendered 
more inhospitable by the low temperature which is the most prom- 
inent characteristic of the country. In cold and in wet, the native of a 
tropical soil must lead a miserable existence. In Britain, however, it 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 49 

breathes and breeds ; but it is here on the limits of even its power to 
endure. In Scotland the tribe is all but unknown. Where it can live, 
however, no one thinks of its real condition; no mortal is so weak as 
to waste pity upon its suffering. Its toil is without other limit than 
the pleasure of its master ; when the day's work is done, the nearest 
lane is the only stable ready to receive it. 

The author has often, when passing down some narrow and unfre- 
quented highway, during the early part of December, encountered a 
miserable group of beings endeavoring to afford each other a little 
warmth by crowding close together. The weather at this season is 
piercing cold. The ground is squashy, and moisture loads the atmos- 
phere. The fierce wind bends the bare twigs of the adjacent hedge, 
and the temperature is of that kind which heralds the Christmas frost. 
It is not yet so low as to numb sensation ; but it leaves the edge of 
feeling unblunted, that sense may fully appreciate the heavy misery, 
before whose wildness all nature moans and crouches. In such a place, 
and at such a season, the author has been made sad by the living anguish 
which the preceding illustration feebly depicts. 

The donkey, in this country, is very unfortunate in the class whoni it 
principally serves. The lower order, though with impulses untainted by 
politeness, yet, in the struggle for life, have little leisure to quicken their 
perceptions or to cultivate their feelings. Their own necessities forbid 
them to be generous, and render somewhat rude their intercourse. They 
exist not within the amenities, but upon the borders of society ; the law, 
under whose protection the affluent breathe in comfort, is to them a cruel 
institution, which forces them to endure, which they recognize only as a 
restraint, and with which they are powerless openly to contend. 

In towns, the homes of such a race are without attractions. The 
very poor are ignorant of domesticity. They eat and live abroad, and 
seek their lodgings only when utter weariness makes them heedless 
where they rest. If the lodging be large enough to conceal, it possesses 
all the requirements poverty demands. To be larger is to be colder ; for 
the ignorant study rather to drag on existence from day to day than 
think to promote the health, which is their only real possession. 

When such a people rise in their sphere of contention, and can afford 
to discard the hand-barrow for the donkey -tray, the inferior animal can 
expect no separate lodging. That will hardly be provided for a beast 
which the master was too abased to conceive necessary for the members 
of his family. 

The donkey is hailed as a new possession ; and for security, not from 
any loftier consideration, it has to share the proprietor's home. No 
hole can be too narrow, too dark, or too stifling for the anixual's abode, 

4 



50 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 



so that it provides the safe keeping for which it is sought. Humanity 
shudders as it pictures the strange places which poverty may view as 
the fitting homes of its dependants ! 

The young horse may be stinted in its food, but it is spared from work 
until a certain period has arrived. All classes have their stated ages 
when the colt should first begin to labor; but the ass has no recognized 
season of rest, even for its immaturity. It is forced to work so soon as 
need can see in the growing body a capacity to assist. Foals are often 
to be seen dragging loaded trays about the streets of London, and the 
day's toil is lengthened or shortened by the quickness or the slowness of 
the day's sale. The food is, during this time, the refuse of the stock; 
seldom can the owner spare from his earnings that which will purchase 
fodder for the life which is the partner of his fatigues. 




THE donkey's preparation rOK THE LABOR OF THE DAT. 



The donkey is harnessed for the early market. The costermonger 
rides with his family to make his bargains for the day ; and the stock- 
in-trade being procured, he and they ride with it back again. The very 
poor never Avalk, save upon necessity, and seem never to conceive their 
animals can be tired or overladen. The wretched quadruped, on home 
being reached, is not released and permitted to rest. It has to support 
the tray while the family wash the stock, display the viands, and get their 
morning meal ; after which it is started with a kick and a blow, and an 
exclamation of, " Come up, lazy ! why, what ails ye, this maming ?" 

Animals have generally less ability to endure fatigue than have the 



ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 51 

numan race; but if the donkey has to work before man's daily round 
commences, so also do its toils increase after the period of mortal labor 
has been fulfilled. My readers must recollect to have frequently beheld 
the coster's tray, now emptied of the green stock of the morning, but 
occupied by several shouting fellows, and drawn past the windows by a 
httle donkey. The street purveyor of vegetables often travels far to 
dispose of his wares. But the green stuff distributed, he considers his 
labors for the day to be ended. He then has time to appreciate his own 
sensations. He flings his body full length upon the tray, and, with the 
good nature which belongs to his class, does not refuse a ride to any 
wayfarer so long as the vehicle can accommodate another passenger. 
All, then, fully impressed with the popular credulities concerning the 
donkey, commence shouting and thumping, while the animal, which has 
been upon its legs before the light began, is forced to travel homeward 
at a pace which is compelled to be faster in proportion as it may be dis- 
tant from its lodging. 

In the country, the houses being more separated, the animal is de- 
prived of the frequent stoppages and the lighter draught of the towns. 
The pull is heavier, and the distances are longer; but still the donkey 
must progress until the master has earned a certain sum, without which 
he rarely turns the creature's head toward his home. If the proprietors 
of asses have few faiths, they are all thoroughly imbued with one belief, 
which is, that the animal in their keeping cannot possibly feel exhaus- 
tion. Their credulity does not stay here. They are impressed with a 
conviction that no creature of the donkey tribe has any sort of feeling. 
The quadruped, they know, can bear an unusual amount of beating with 
the thickest possible bludgeon, and simply requires only the coarsest of 
refuse for sustenance. Moreover, such conviction leaves the proprietor 
his own convenience to consider, when imposing burdens on "the beast 
within his gate." 

The last article of belief makes the man select the weakest portion of 
his dumb servant's spine for a seat, when he is inclined to play the 
jockey. The reader, to whose notice diagrams of the equine spine have 
been submitted, knows that the loins alone are unsupported by other 
bones. The absence of that which renders this region the weakest divi- 
sion of the vertebrae, also makes this portion of the quadruped's back 
the most yielding and elastic. Here the fashion of vulgarity fixes the 
rider's seat when he strides the ass. The veterinary student will remem- 
ber that few of the lumbar bones in the carcasses he dissected, when at 
college, were in their integrity. The author has encountered two, three, 
and even four bones of the six which compose the part locked together 
by osseous deposit. 



52 ANATOMICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

Such a form of union proves tlie animal to have suffered inflammation. 
The injury must have been endured and the agony must have run its 
course ; for an osseous junction is positive evidence that all the stages 
of inflammation have been survived. Few persons, when they behold 
the young donkey stagger under the weight of its six-foot rider, care to 
think of this ; nay, the writer has beheld really worthy gentlemen stand 
and enjoy the scene of activity presented at evening time by a rural 
gipsy's encampment. The women were laughing, the men were shout- 
ing, while the more jovial of the gang were racing on the common. Those 
poor donkeys, which already had been goaded to the performance of no 
ordinary day's toil, were carrying terrific loads, and beaten till they gal- 
loped, despite the deep-seated anguish with which they were afflicted. 



CHAPTER 11. 

PHYSIC, THE MODE OF ADMINISTERING IT, AND MINOR OPERATIONS. 

Let the reader ask any gentleman of his acquaintance, "Whether 
man is not morally answerable for the welfare of those animals which 
are gathered beneath his roof?" The individual thus appealed to will 
most probably lean back in his easy chair, and, with a look of amiable 
surprise, may reply " Certainly ! certainly ! Assuredly, my dear sir, I 
regard myself as fully responsible ! Every horse in my stable costs me 
one hundred pounds, or very nearly, a year. The poor animals ought 
to be well looked after for that money 1 Clerks — many young city 
men — receive only fifty pounds annually — from respectable houses too. 
Therefore, my horses ought to be especially well cared for !" 

But to drive this matter home, allow the author, with all humility, to 
inquire if it be in the power of money to discharge the smallest or the 
slightest moral bond ? Is there no difference between paying and doing ? 
May there not bo certain duties which are equally stringent upon the 
very rich and the very poor ? Can the wealthy compound for such oblir 
gations, and are the needy, only, to be judged for the non-fulfillment of 
these responsibilities ? 

It is among the worst features of modern society that, while it boasts 
of several worthy gentlemen who can draw largely upon their bankers, 
there are in its ranks so very few who would willingly submit to the 
smallest personal exertion for the fulfillment of that which they confess to 
be a moral duty. Would these most agreeable and amiable individuals 
occasionally lounge toward the stable, the cost of its maintenance might 
be decreased, and, nevertheless, the creatures for whose welfare the 
owner is confessedly responsible be better treated at the diminished 
outlay. 

When a dumb slave fails in the service of some affluent proprietor, all 
that might be done is not accomplished when an order is hastily given 
"to call in" a veterinary surgeon. It is not sufficient that baskets of 
drugs are delivered and paid for ; that physicking and bleeding are prac- 
ticed and remunerated; that a "horse doctor" is constant in his attend- 
ance, or that a building, by its odor, attests to the activity of his meas- 
ures. No. Man is formed capable of investigation, and is blessed with 

(53) 



54 PHYSIC. 

a power of locomotion. A man is bound to go, to see, to bear patiently, 
and to judge conscientiously, of tbat wbicb is done to tbe lives intrusted 
to bis responsibility. Had tbis duty been discharged, many processes, 
still sanctioned by custom, might bave fallen into disuse ; some babits, 
now indulged, rnigbt bave been discarded ; wbile a few objectionable 
measures might have been altogether forbidden as useless formalities and 
needless cruelties. 

Horse Balls — particular forms of veterinary medicine — are generally 
sent to stables by the dozen. Physic is thus placed at the pleasure or 
the caprice of ignorance to administer. The author has seen a large 
chest full of such abominations — looking very pretty, and made up all 
of one size, each labeled, and bearing some distinctive title — directed to 
an English nobleman resident in the country. Such a supply, the writer 
was informed, is dispatched to "my lord's" address twice in each year, 
and is always used by the grooms, and by the stated period, in accord- 
ance with the accompanying directions. 

The only safeguard attending such implements of destruction was that 
the majority were harmless, either from the worthless nature of the drugs 
composing them, or from the change which took place between the agents 
being compounded and at the time of their being employed. Many, no 
doubt, were thrown away ; but that fact excuses neither the professional 
man who sent them, the honorable person who ordered them, or the igno- 
rant servants by whom they were accepted. Each was impressed with 
a belief that such things were potent. It is astonishing how much of 
this world's sin is gilt over by its credulity. All concerned regarded 
these things as mysterious projectiles, strong enough to regulate the 
eccentricities of health and powerful enough to vanquish the dangers 
of disease. 

One form of ball, however, is neither innocuous nor safe — it is the 
aloetic. Aloes is the common purgative of the stable. So general was 
the use of the drug, and so unquestioning appears to have, formerly, been 
the confidence lavished upon its operation, that this medicine always took 
the precedence in every sickness, and, ultimately, by popular consent, 
engrossed to itself the significant term of "physic." "Has this horse 
had physic?" — "Prepare this horse for physic" — when spoken in the 
stable, signify, has such an animal bad aloes ? or imply an order that 
another quadruped is to be prepared for a dose of aloes. The groom 
can only imagine that to be worthy of the title "physic," which is 
capable of producing visible effects ; and, certainly, when judged by the 
stable-man's standard, aloes merits the distinction bestowed upon its 
drastic results. 

Other things will move the bowels of the horse, and will empty its 



PHYSIC. 55 

intestines much more gently, and with altogetlier more safety ; but the 
stable cannot, therefore, afford to part with its favorite representative of 
the many forms of medicine. Bran mashes, four of these being given 
daily, it is well known, will relax the animal's system ; but the groom 
employs these agents merely as preparatory to the favorite dose of 
aloes ; and, though repeated mashes will induce purgation in the equine 
patient, the groom is never satisfied unless that result be aggravated by 
a dose of aloes. 

The horse's body does not quickly respond to opening medicine ; but 
the action, once elicited, is not invariably easy to command. The ani- 
mal's life is frequently a prey to a potent purgative. The veterinarian 
knows that the different creatures vary much in their capability of swal- 
lowing amounts of aloes; that the dose which will not move one quad- 
ruped may destroy the inhabitant of the next stall. One creature will 
imbibe two ounces of the drug without marked effect ; another will be 
shaken by the action of less than half an ounce of the preparation. 
Nevertheless, the stable-man always craves for aloes, and always expe- 
riences an odd dehght when watching for its hydragogue operation. 

The farmers in Norfolk are strongly tainted with the superstition of the 
London mews. They also crave for aloes, and the youthful veterinary 
surgeon frequently yields to the demand. Young practitioners delight 
in strong doses. Accordingly, a full dose of aloes is sent to the Norfolk 
farmer, and by him rammed down the throat of some unfortunate team- 
ster. The next time the novice encounters his customer, the man of the 
diploma is greeted with "Hey, doctor! doctor! what beautiful physic 
that were you sent for Slyboots I Oh ! how it did work the poor thing, 
to be sure ! If anything could have saved the beast, that must have 
done ! But the time were up, and he died of a powerful inflammation. 
Thanke, thanke, doctor ! Let's have your bill !" 

This is the more lamentable when we consider that in nine cases out 
of ten, or rather in twenty -nine out of thirty, the administration of aloes 
is unnecessary. In the great majority of cases, its place could be advan- 
tageously supplied by bran mashes, which are readily made according to 
the following receipt : Put a peck of bran into a perfectly clean stable- 
pail. One person should stir the bran as briskly as possible, while 
another person, with speed, empties a sufiBciency of boiling water into 
the pail to render the contents a pultaceous mass. The vessel is then 
covered up, and when it has become cool, the pudding is thrown into 
the manger. 

However, one horse shall devour bran mashes with avidity, another 
will not touch them. This will not partake of the potion unless it be 
partially warm; another will not eat until it is perfectly cold; while 



56 PHYSIC. 

most will partake of the mess if it be flavored by the admixture of a 
little salt or a few crushed oats. 

So it is, also, with water. Certain horses, when feeding upon bran 
mashes, refuse all drink ; others enjoy frequent draughts of cold fluid ; 
while a third set seem to crave warm water ; and a fourth will neither 
imbibe freely nor entirely abstain, being wholly indifferent as to the tem- 
perature of the liquid. Thus the order, which is inserted in most books, 
to give to the horse, after the animal has swallowed a dose of aloes, copi- 
ous draughts of warm water, is frequently rendered futile; for, as the 
proverb teaches, "one man may lead the horse to the pond, but forty 
men cannot make the quadruped drink." 

Bran mashes, however, will act without the aid of repeated doses of 
warm fluid. Of themselves they do not debilitate, though from the length 
and size of the horse's intestines, purgation cannot be long maintained 
without inducing serious exhaustion ; and it is never safe to work the 
animal while any looseness is observable. A tendency to inflammation 
is often announced by repeated and liquid discharges ; therefore, never 
let the horse be taken out while the bowels are in a state of excitement, 
for exercise may increase that action to one of positive disease. Bran 
mashes, however, are the safest and the gentlest of laxatives. Any con- 
dition may be induced; according to the number and frequency of the 
potions. In general, they act mildly, without inducing that bodily dis- 
comfort and that constitutional weakness which throws the animal out 
of condition and renders rest an absolute necessity for recovery. Alto- 
gether, these mixtures are the best and the safest laxative of the stable ; 
but even these should never be administered to the horse without the 
special direction of the proprietor. 

On the other hand, aloes can, in no form, be administered to some 
horses. Very many cannot receive a full dose of the drug. Several 
can only with safety swallow the medicine when highly spiced or in 
solution. While a few are all but insensible to the action of the agent. 
Alarming spasms often follow the exhibition of a moderate quantity of 
aloes, which always renders the quadruped sickly ere the effects are visi- 
ble. The drug, in most instances, lies dormant twenty-four hours ; during 
which period the appetite is lost, the spirits oppressed, the coat dull, and 
the entire system evidently shaken. It is not esteemed prudent to work 
the patient till several days' rest have been allowed for its restoration. 

It used once to be the custom to trot the animal which was sickening 
under a dose of aloes ; but experience has shown the danger of the habit. 
The horse is now left in the stable, has an extra rug thrown upon the 
back, while a pail of warm water is in most instances placed in the 
manger. Where safe, it is obviously unnecessary to ride the quadruped 



PHYSIC. 31 

which is sickening under aloes; since the loss of appetite shows the 
medicine has affected the system, and the natural effects of the physic 
may, therefore, be anticipated. 

Very many animals, when suffering from chronic debility, may be 
slaughtered by a moderate dose of aloes, while many never sufficiently 
recover from purgation to do a day's work after the medicine has ceased 
to operate. Of all the preparations the veterinarian has at his command, 
the writer does not know one which exerts so decided an effect upon the 
constitution; nor does the veterinary pharmacopoeia contain an agent 
which could be more advantageously dispensed with. During the years 
the author was in active practice, he does not remember to have ever 
given a dose of aloes that the symptoms did not afterward cause him to 
regret the administration. 

There is another fact rendering the aloetic ball an unsafe agent to be 
intrusted to the keeping of a groom. These things, as commonly com- 
pounded, become, in a short time, as hard as stones. The author has 
handled many which might be broken, but which could not be indented. 
Such bodies are not in a fit condition to be thrust down a horse's throat. 
All unyielding substances are liable to stick in the gullet, and to provoke 
choking — the digestive passages of the horse not contemplating the de- 
glutition of other than moist and soft pellets of thoroughly masticated 
food. Aloes was, at one time, in spite of the objections urged, very 
popular in the stable ; for that consequence, the late Professor Coleman 
was mainly answerable. They are at present chiefly employed in accord- 
ance with the dictates of routine, and usually take precedence of other 
forms of medicine. 




A BAIJ, A3 SUCH THINGS ARE SENT FROM THE VETERINARY PHARMACT. 

A horse ball represents some substance in powder mixed into a mass 
with some moist ingredient, such as soft soap, treacle, palm oil, etc. The 
compounds, when united, are usually rolled into sticks about three- 
quarters of an inch in diameter. These sticks are subsequently cut 
into lengths of two and a half or four inches in extent, according to the 
amount required for a dose ; each piece is weighed, is dusted with some 
non-adhesive powder, is securely wrapped in paper, is labeled, and is 



58 PHYSIC. 

packed away for use or sent out to such stables as deligM in strange 
property. 




A BALL, OF THE FORM WHICH IT IS GENERALLY MADE TO ASSUME WHEN GIVEN. 

Previous to a ball being delivered it is customary, with the generality 
of practitioners, to pinch the sharp edge of the forward extremity until 
that part of the substance becomes rounded. The intention, when doing 
this, is so to modify the shape as to facilitate the passage of the body 
down the gullet. Where the medicine is soft, as all newly-compounded 
drugs must necessarily be, the muscular contractility of the horse's swal- 
low would render such trouble useless ; but, as the ball must be rather 
pulpy which can be thus moulded by the fingers, it v/ould be no more 
than a prudent regulation should every proprietor insist on this custom 
always being complied with. Whether the present practice in any degree 
is beneficial to the animal, the author is very dubious ; at all events, the 
horse were very fortunate if the sharp edges of the forward extremity 
were the only danger it encountered when swallowing the physic which 
is supposed to be curative in its effect. 

Several potent caustics rank among the most common of horse phys- 
ics. Those agents are of great power ; as bichloride of mercury, arsenic, 
nitrate of silver, sulphate of copper, etc. These burning compounds are 
frequently administered in substance, and in enormous doses. Even 
where the quantity prescribed ^s not objectionable, the form in which the 
caustic is generally given is calculated to be highly injurious. In the 
first place, the use of such things in the veterinary pharmacy is too com- 
mon an occurrence for the compounder to bestow much care upon the 
accuracy of the weight — a scruple more or less being commonly esteemed 
of no importance. Next, small thought is bestowed upon the necessity 
of incorporating such fiery components with more mild ingredients before 
the mass is forced down the sensitive throat of a living creature. A ball 
made of linseed meal and treacle is quickly snatched from one of the 
drawers of the surgery ; the powerful agent is speedily reduced to pow- 
der ; the placebo is torn from its envelope ; a slit is cut down its center ; 
from the mortar the potent material is emptied into the cavity thus 
formed for its reception ; and the whole, after having been rewrapped in 
fresh paper, is esteemed to be ready for delivery. 



PHYSIC. 59 

When such an article has been swallowed by the creature, in whose 
welfare no living being seems to take a genuine interest, the paper or 
outward investment is speedily removed by the action of the stomach. 
Then, the retaining cover being destroyed, the burning mass falls out 
upon the fine, moist, and velvet coat lining the viscus; this fact may 
very probably explain why stomachic diseases are so general with the 
majority of old favorites. As such substances are caustics when ap- 
plied to the external flesh, it is only reasonable to infer that no tissue 
within the body could long withstand the burning properties of such 
potent destroyers. It is true that certain inhumanities, miscalled exper- 
iments, have been practiced upon living horses. Enormous quantities 
of the most destructive compounds have been poured down the living 
throats of submissive quadrupeds. Some animals long survived such 
disgusting brutality ; but others have succumbed at the very commence- 
ment of the trial. Veterinary therapeutics, however, take no notice of 
such as yielded to the smaller dose. The men who conducted these cruel- 
tics delight to dwell upon the fact that a certain horse actually took so 
much of such a poison, and, apparently, suffered no ill effects from imbi- 
bition of the deadly potion. 




A COMPOUND BALL, A3 PREPAKED lU TOO MANT TETERINART PHARMACIES. 

However, supposing such an experiment were made on human beings. 
Let a certain number of cripples be procured from the workhouses ; aged 
creatures whose span of existence was almost run, and on whose coun- 
tenances years of suffering had impressed the lines of prolonged misery. 
Let such poor mortals be deprived of speech, and let all the signs of suf- 
fering in them be disregarded. Then force these wretched beings to 
swallow large quantities of the various poisons. Would all perish simul- 
taneously ? By no means. Affliction often acts as a defense to those 
whom it envelops. Men in different stages of distress have endured 
strange things, as during every hour the record of calamity makes known. 

The poor animals which served for the subjects of the so-called veteri- 
nary experiments were procured from the knackei's; they were in the 
last stages of disease, and the poison, which would kill healthy horses, 
actmg upon frames exhausted by every possible accumulation of agony, 
probably may have stimulated the exhaustion of excessive debility. 



60 PHYSIC. 

That whicli would destroy an ordinary life, acting upon an existence 
sinking to its last sleep, may, to the blindness of mortal recognitions, 
appear to work without sensible result, or may seem to recall the fleet- 
ing spirit back to earth. At all events, no sound deduction can be 
drawn, as to the action of any medicinal substances upon the healthy 
body, from the apparent influence exerted by such agents upon decrepi- 
tude and upon senility. 

The so-called experiments, which are here alluded to only to reprobate 
them as horrible cruelties, very probably have induced the carelessness 
that prevails throughout veterinary practice as to the use of caustic 
bodies among its customary medicines. Such salts should, on no account, 
be exhibited in substance, if, indeed, their supposititious virtues should 
recommend them at all to the prescriber. During the years which the 
author was in practice he scrupulously abjured all these abominations, 
and the results which were obtained by gentler agents were such as did 
no discredit to the adoption of milder measures. 

Humanity should prevail consistently throughout all acts forced upon 
the life which Providence has intrusted to our mercy. If the recogni- 
tion of this duty, as an actuating motive, be a weakness, in its adoption 
is carried its own defense. If charity does no good, it cannot possibly 
work harm to the dumb life upon which its offices are expended ; whereas, 
when administering balls to horses, the cruelty often indulged causes many 
of these gentle animals to acquire those habits of resistance which are 
at first no more than the wild efforts of conscious helplessness aiming at 
self-defense. Such timid creatures, influenced by fear, will instinctively 
rear, kick, and vigorously attack whoever may approach them. 

He who will have the patience and the courage to encounter what is 
in stable language denominated "a savage horse," may do so with every 
confidence. Let him approach the quadruped alone, when the groom is 
absent and silence reigns around. Nothing must be done quickly. When 
the horse moves, the man must remain stationary. Every symptom of 
alarm must be assuaged by kind looks and gentle words. When the horse 
is convinced that no injury is designed — and it is astonishing how quickly 
a generous spirit will comprehend the intentions of benevolence — in pro- 
portion as ferocity was previously displayed will gratitude gush forth and 
submit the huge body to man's pleasure. 

If, however, the person has neither time nor inclination to undertake 
such a trial, then, with an animal having a tendency to become excited, 
he must adopt one of those mechanical restraints known as balling-irons. 
These things are not altogether safe for their employer, while they are 
decidedly not beneficial in their operation upon the quadruped. A ball- 
ing-iron is simply a piece of metal, so shaped that when thrust violently 



PHYSIC. 



61 



between the creature's jaws it forcibly holds the mouth open. Therefore, 
it will certainly prevent biting ; but an irritable or a fearful horse can rear 
up and strike with its forefeet. Such an animal is not entirely subdued 
when the iron is adjusted. Moreover, these instruments occasion pain, 
and the horse, instructed by repeated agony, soon grows very cunning, 
and equally resolute in its efforts to oppose the insertion of the dreaded 
instrument which causes its suffering. 

The man using a ballmg-iron has, therefore, to guard himself from 
blows rapidly dealt with the forehoofs of a desperate animal. 




THE COMMONEST FORM OP BAIXING-rEOX. 

A A. The ring of iron which, being forced into 
the animal's mouth, keeps the jaws asunder. 

B B, B B. That portion of the metal which stea- 
dies the ring by remaining against the jaws. 

C. The handle. 




THE IMPROVED FORM OF THE COMMON BALLING- 
IRON, WHICH AFFORDS A PROBABILITY OF 
ESCAPE FOR TEE OPERATOR'S ARM. 

A A. The part forced into the mouth. 
B B, B B. The parts which remain against 
the jaws. C. The handle. 



He has also to be ready at the slightest intimation of an intention to 
rear, so that he may withdraw his arm on the instant, otherwise the 
operator is dragged upward with the elevated crest, and, hanging by the 
inserted member, he is very lucky if a broken limb does not reward his 
tardiness. The use of the balling-iron, consequently, is not free from 
danger; and in practice it will be found safer to subdue by kindness 
than to partially conquer by the employment of mechanical restraints. 



62 



PHYSIC. 



The most common form of balling-iron is constructed according to the 
model indicated in the preceding illustration. The circular jjiece of metal 
is inserted into the mouth of the animal. . A straight bar is attached to 
either side of the metallic ring, the design of these last being to steady 
the instrument after it has been forced into its proper position. Through 
the circle the operator's arm is thrust, and the iron ring affords security 
so far as it disables the jaws from closing upon the member. But, though 
safe in one direction, such a protection also creates its particular peril ; 
for, should the horse rear, the arm, being surrounded by a metallic rim, 
could not be withdrawn with the speed requisite to insure the operator's 

safety. The suspension of the man's 
body is almost certain to provoke the 
fracture of his imprisoned limb; conse- 
quently, to remedy that evil, the im- 
provement indicated by the right-hand 
illustration was introduced. 

The circle in the foregoing is left free 
on one side; thus, the inexpert have a 
little more time allowed for their move- 
ments. The arm could be retracted with 
greater ease, and the former danger was, 
in a great measure, removed. Still, this 
new shape was not wholly satisfactory. 
The form was fixed : horses are not all 
of one height, one breadth, or of one 
capacity. There are small creatures 
designated ponies ; while horses are not 
rarely encountered of enormous propor- 
tions. As the iron has no power of 
being adapted, the form that should 
prove not large enough for one may be 
altogether disproportioned to another 
quadruped. 

The weight of metal necessarily em- 
ployed to assure the requisite strength, 
also rendered it inconvenient for a veter- 
inary surgeon to carry more than one of 
these bulky articles; and though small 
was the amount of ingenuity which had 
hitherto been lavished on the improvement of the thing, for years it con- 
tinued of the last character. Mr. Yarnell, assistant professor at the 
Royal Veterinary College, however, appears to have entirely removed 




A NE'W BAlLINQ-rRON, INVENTED BY PROFES- 
SOR V.UINEIL, OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY 
COLLEGE, LONDON. 

A A. India-rubber tubing, to protect the 
mouth from the harshness of the metal 
bars. 

B B B. Side pieces to keep the iron in its 
situation. 

C. The handle. 

D. The lower bar, attached to the handle. 

E. The side piece, which can be raised or 
depressed. 

F. The screw, at the extremity of the 
side piece. 

Q. The nut which, fastened to the handle, 
acts upon the screw and fixes its position. 



PHYSIC. 



63 



all former objections, and to have invented a balling-iron which seems 
to possess all the qualities that such an instrument is capable of exhib- 
iting. The restraining bars of this last amendment are formed of pol- 
ished steel, and are covered with a stout piece of India-rubber tubing, 
thus in some measure protecting the mouth of the creature from injury 
by what hitherto was the exposed metal. The lower bar, moreover, is 
attached to the handle, and the handle can be readily raised or depressed 
by turning the nut situated at its base. It can, therefore, be quickly 
adapted to any possible capacity of jaw. 




THE USUAL MANNER OF QIVnJQ A BAIL. 



Such a form of immunity is, however, seldom sought, save by the very 
inexperienced in the veterinary practice. A few years of active employ- 
ment enables any person to discard this defense. A sufficient security 
is in all ordinary cases afforded by the horse's tongue, which, when a 
ball is about to be administered, is grasped by the left hand, and with- 
drawn to the right side of the mouth. The hand thus employed is fixed, 
being lightly pressed against the inferior margin of the lower jaw; for, 
when retained in such a position, the tongue is pressed upon the fore- 
most of the huge molar teeth. Of course, the animal, thus held, cannot 
approximate its jaws so as seriously to harm the operator without biting 
its own flesh ; by that circumstance is safety supposed to be rendered 



64 



PHYSIC. 



certain. But should violence be exerted, animal fear is apt to be supe* 
rior to bodily pain ; the tongue and arm may be simultaneously bitten 
through. The practiced veterinary surgeon, however, takes advantage 
of the first emotiori of surprise which the creature experiences at the 
liberties taken with, and the indignities offered to, its person. Having 
the ball ready in the right hand, he, standing on the left side, quickly 
introduces the bolus into the wondering quadruped's mouth. 

The medicine is lodged at the back portion of the tongue, whence, as 
the horse does not expectorate, the creature has no ability of expelling 
it, save only by coughing. During the spasm, which accompanies this 
act, the soft palate is raised and the ball is carried outward with the 
volume of violently-expired breath. Some horses acquire a habit of 
thus returning all forms of physic, and will cough up a ball twenty times. 
Such a circumstance illustrates the necessity of distracting the attention 
of the quadruped the instant the hand is retracted ; for in the confusion 
of the moment the most inveterate "dodger" may be surprised into 
swallowing any abhorrent morsel. 




THE CUSTOMARY MODE OF DISTEACTINO THE HOBSE'S ATTENTION, AFTEE IT HAS RECEIVED A BALL. 



The hand, during the delivery of the ball, being rapidly thrust into 
the mouth, is frequently cut by the sharp edges of the molar teeth. No 
knowledge, which has hitherto been attained by veterinary science, can 
point out the animal possessed of grinders of this dangerous description, 
and the only protection as yet suggested is to cover the hand with a 
glove. But a glove cannot be washed and dried so readily as the hand ; 



PHYSIC. 



65 



it, moreover, is highly objectionable to introduce the saliva of one animal 
into the mouth of another, as disease may be thus conveyed from horse 
to horse also, it being impossible to provide a new glove with every 
fresh patient, the protection is not universally adopted. 

The medicine being delivered, the hand is quickly withdrawn, and the 
jaws of the animal are clapped together. The nose is then rubbed some- 
what roughly, for — the upper lip being the organ of prehension, as well 
as the seat of feeling, in the horse — this part is excited with the design 
of preventing the quadruped from dwelling too intently on the unpleasant 
nature of the substance which has just been forced into its mouth. 




A BALL BEINQ ADMINISTERED ACCOKDING TO ME. GO'WING'S DIBECTION. 



Mr. Gowing, the excellent veterinary surgeon, of Camden Town, has, 
with his usual ingenuity, endeavored to remove those objections to which 
the previous manner of delivering a ball is obviously liable. This gen- 
tleman grasps the tongue rather higher up than is customary; and, 
having done so, does not retract the member, but fixes the hand upon 
the gums which cover the upper margin of the lower jaw. The point 
of the tongue protrudes between the thumb and fingers, and it is then 
plain that the animal cannot close the mouth without biting upon its 
own flesh. 

Yet candor obliges the author to state that he does not view this 
method of grasping the tongue as an improvement on the old practice. 
The tongue, not being drawn out of the mouth, is not so decidedly fixed 

5 



66 PHYSIC. 

upon the molar teeth ; while the hand appears to be placed in a some- 
what dangerous position. For if, under excitement, the horse can become 
so oblivious as actually to bite through its own flesh, how would the 
hand of the operator fare when the closing of the jaws should lacerate 
the lingual body? The only advantage which can attend upon Mr. 
Gowing's proposed plan must result from the smaller outrage it offers, 
thus leaving the amiable disposition of the animal the better chance of 
controlling its emotions. 

It is, therefore, demonstrated the tongue can afford the operator no 
decided protection ; the question, consequently, resolves itself into which 
of the methods affords the hand the greatest immunity, should the animal 
become alarmed. The author cannot but think the outside of the jaw is, 
under such circumstances preferable to the interior of the mouth. 




ME. gowing's excellent mannee of beliveeing a ball. 

However, the method proposed by Mr. Gowing for holding and deliv- 
ering the ball is unobjectionable. According to the plan adopted by that 
gentleman, the knuckles are not elevated ; but the hand is extended, the 
thumb and fingers being all brought upon one level and all held close 
together. The ball is placed between the fore and middle fingers, on 
the same level as the hand generally, being retained simply by slight 
lateral pressure. In this position it is introduced, and evidently de- 
mands less space for its entrance than was required according to the 
former system. When the ball has been advanced to the desired situa- 
tion, a separation of the fingers allows the morsel to drop into its place. 

Some stress, however, is laid upon the manner of clasping the head 
after the ball has been lodged. Mr. Gowing claps-to the jaws and evi- 
dently contemplates holding them in apposition. This is a mistake; 
for the muscles of the horse are not to be controlled by the utmost power 
of the strongest human being. The old custom, which applied friction 
on the most sensitive portion of the horse's body, the writer esteems as 
better calculated to distract the attention of the quadruped. 

The delivery of a horse ball is, however, rendered difficult in propor- 
tion to the number of persons who surround the animal, and to the noise 
made on the occasion. For the above reason, all the pupils at public 



PHYSIC. 



67 



schools have to learn this portion of their profession under heavy diffi- 
culties. The fuss which accompanies this simple operation in such insti- 
tutions alarms the horse. It is turned round in its stall ; the twitch is 
put upon the upper lip ; a futile attempt is made to hold the jaws apart ; 
while the nervousness of the young student who is about to perform, — 
all are likely to exercise an evil influence upon a sensitive and a timid 
creature. 




MR. gowing's method of grasping the jaws after the delivery of a ball. 



Veterinary surgeons, however, soon learn to give a ball with greater 
speed and with less ceremony. They go alone up to the head, and 
play for a time with the quadruped's face. Confidence being thus estab- 
lished, the practitioner gently withdraws the creature's tongue. This 
being accomplished, of course the jaws are sundered ; when, without 
any sign of flurry, the hand is introduced into the cavity and the medi- 
cine properly lodged. After such a manner, the practiced veterinarian 
gives many balls in the course of the day, and is hardly ever known to 
fail. Indeed, were the practitioner, when going his rounds, to wait till 



68 



PHYSIC. 



four or five assistants could be collected ere he administered the requisite 
medicine, the duties of the day could never be discharged. 




THE QUIET METHOD OF GIVING A BALL. 



The physic being introduced into the mouth, the person who has 
undertaken to deliver it should on no account esteem his business 
finished, and thereon leave the stable. He should proceed to the left 
side of the horse and watch the neck. In that position, when the animal 
swallows, any substance can be seen to travel down the gullet; this 
proof having been witnessed, the building may be quitted with a safe 
conscience. The illustration of this fact was drawn on the wood cor- 
rectly; but the artist did not make proper allowance for the transfer of 
his sketch by the engraver. The last process has made that which was 
originally on the left side of the neck appear as on the right side of the 
body. 

Drinks or draughts are not in favor with the majority of veterinary 
surgeons. Most practitioners urge, in justification of their dislike to 
such a form of medicine, that solutions are attended with danger — being 
apt, when administered, to pass into the trachea, and thus to flow upon 
the lungs. Admitting this objection, it does not decide the question ; 
for the advocates of solid physic can possess small experience if they 
are to be told that balls have proved injurious by also entering the for- 
bidden channel. Likewise, that when the popular form of physic has 
grown hard, much harm has been occasioned by the mass becoming im- 



PHYSIC. 69 

pacted within the gullet. Evil can, therefore, be caused by physic in 
either form, if given without the necessary caution ; and the balance of 
fact can incline the judgment to neither one side nor the other. 




A BALL PASSING DOWN THE HORSE'S GULLET. 

But it is curious to read of serious dislike being entertained against 
drinks, and at the same time know that several practitioners are accus- 
tomed to administer this kind of medicine after a particular method, 
which evinces a desire to illustrate the very circumstance which consti- 
tutes the objection to every solid. Many country veterinarians are 
accustomed to pour all the liquids which they exhibit down the nostril 
of the animal. Now, the nostrils terminate immediately over the larynx 
— the direct channel is from one chamber into the other cavity — thus, 
any fluid administered after so unnatural a method will probably find its 
way on to the lungs. 

Such an abuse of nature's designs being largely practiced upon a 
powerful quadruped, is proof of the perfect submission with which the 
creature has accepted its appointed master. Such an absolute negation 
of self, deserved considerate recognition from the reasoning and superior 
being. Veterinary medicines are too generally composed of pungent 
and of caustic materials, while the nostrils are lined with a highly sen- 
sitive and delicately moist mucous membrane. It was created to come 
in contact with the air, to which the nostrils in the horse afford the only 
legitimate passage. The notion of disregarding the mouth and selecting 
60 tender a channel, down which to pour acrid and burning solutions, 



to 



PHYSIC. 



aj^pears to be such a refinement upon ordinary barbarity as must puzzle 
the reader to discover a motive to excuse. 




THE NATURAL CONSEQUENCE WHICH IS TO BE EXPECTED \THENEVER THE FILTHY CUSTOM OF POURING 
DKINKS INTO THE NASAL CHAMBER OF A HORSE IS ADOPTED. 



a a. The windpipe. 



b b. The gullet. 



cc. The soft palate. 



d. The tonsrne. 



The fact appears the more monstrous when we consider the practice 
h adopted by the veterinary surgeon, and that it is exhibited upon the 
sick horse Avhose welfare he is especially bound to conserve. The irri- 
tation consequent upon so abhorrent an abuse cannot but be most pre- 
judicial to that quietude which is, upon every form of existence, healing 
in its effect. The motive which prompts so outrageous a proceeding is 
the love of display, acting upon an ignorant or unscrupulous individual ; 
joined to this, is the knowledge that medicine can be administered with 
greater speed than when delivered according to the natural method. The 
horse has no power to check the course, of any liquid emptied into the 
nostril of the elevated head ; whereas the animal will frequently occupy 
a considerable time before a fluid, delivered by the mouth, is swallowed. 
By one canal, the will is powerless; by the other channel, volition is 
operative. To save his time, as well as to excite surprise, are the only 
motives which can prompt a careless man to tamper with that welfare 
it is his duty to tenderly protect. 

To render this subject the more intelligible to the reader, the natural 
process which enables the horse to imbibe liquids shall here be detailed. 
The mouth of this animal is peculiar for having at its backward ex- 



PHYSIC. 



71 



tremity a fleshy screen, which hangs pendulous from the bony roof. 
This soft palate explains why the quadruped, under ordinary circum- 
stances, breathes only through the nose ; and why, when it vomits, the 
regurgitated matter is ejected by the nostrils. That specialty is of serv- 
ice, however, during the act of imbibition. The posterior entrance to 
the nasal chamber being open and the head in a pendulous position, 
were there no special provision to the contrary, the water, after hav- 
ing passed the mouth, would, from the mere force of gravity, have 

F:g 1. 




DIAGRAM, (FIG. 1,) EXPLANATOUT OF TKE COMPOUND ACT OF DKINKINQ IN THE HORSE. 

o a. The water drawn into the mouth and forced into the fauces by the compression of the forward part 
of the tongue and the enlargement of the backward portion of the organ. 
b b. The fluid passing down the oesophagus or gullet. 
c. Tlie larynx, lowered to admit the passage of the liquid. 
dd. The tongue, dilated at one place and contracted at another. 
C. The soft palate, floated upward and effectually closing the nasal passages. 



a tendency to return by the nostrils. This actually occurs whenever 
cold, strangles, influenza, sore throat, etc. interferes with the activity oi 
the health of these parts now under consideration. Disease renders the 
organ sensitive, and tenderness makes the animal exert its volition to 
prevent the employment of the inflamed structure. In consequence of 
this cause, the nasal chambers are imperfectly closed, and a great por- 
tion of the fluid imbibed by the mouth flows forth again through the 



n. 



PHYSIC. 



nostrils. Such a tendency to gravitate is, during health, effectually pre- 
vented by the soft palate. Before any substance can pass from the 
mouth toward the thi-oat, that appendage must be raised, and its rising 
closes the posterior entrance to the nasal chambers. 

The tongue is the primary agent employed when the animal slakes its 
thirst. The backward portion of the organ is contracted, and the for- 
ward part compressed by muscular volition, (dd, fig. 1.) A vacuum 
would thereby be created, were not the water propelled by atmospheric 



Fia. 2. 




DIAGRAM, (fig. 2,) EXPLANATORY OF THE COMPOUND ACT OF DRINKING. 

a a. Tlie water driven backward by the forward dilatation of the tongue and the upward movement of 
the larynx. 
b b. The full current forced down the gullet, 
c. The larynx propelled against the soft palate. 
d d. The tongue, dilated anteriorly and compressed posteriorly, 
c. The soft palate. 



pressure into the void thus formed, (a, fig. 1.) The posterior of the 
tongue is then relaxed, while the anterior division of the organ is pressed 
against the roof of the mouth, (d d, fig. 2.) The fluid is thereby driven 
to the backward part of the cavity, (a, fig. 2.) The tongue, during the 
act, continues to alternate the states of contraction and relaxation, each 
motion of the lingual agent serving to pump the water into the fauces, 
(a, fig. 1.) But, before that can 'be accomplished, the soft palate n\ust 



PHYSIC. 13 

be elevated. The soft palate (e, fig. 2) then closes the nostrils, (e, fig. 1 ;) 
and also in its course to take this position sets in motion the cartilages 
of the larynx. The last cover over and effectually protecting the wind- 
pipe, (c, fig. 1,) the fluid is forced onward by the contraction of the tongue, 
passes into a secure chamber, the roof and floor of which are but of tem- 
porary formation, (a, fig. 1.) Here it remains only during the inactivity 
of the larynx. The upward motion of the latter body (c, fig. 2) propels 
the fluid into the pharynx, whence involuntary contractility sends it into 
the gullet, the muscular action of which tube conveys it onward to the 
stomach, (a b b, fig. 2.) 

From the foregoing explanation, the reader is in a position to judge 
whether the nasal chamber is a fit passage for acrimonious mixtures, 
since he now understands the evident pains the All-wise has bestowed 
to prevent the temperate fluid, of which the animal customarily partakes, 
from intruding upon the elaborate, delicate, and highly sensitive mem- 
brane that lines the air-passages. All vetei'inary students are not edu- 
cated men, neither are all attentive to their studies while at college; but 
it should require an extraordinary amount of ignorance and conceit to 
thus grossly misconceive the intentions which are so plainly impressed 
upon the body of the quadruped. 

The author, however, doubts if those objections generally advanced 
to drinks are in any degree derived from the results of actual experience. 
Balls can be manufactured by the score, and then stored away for subse- 
quent use. Drinks would decompose if thus mixed and kept ready in 
the surgery. Drinks must be separately compounded, as required. Balls 
occupy little space, and being solid can be safely carried or forwarded to 
any distance. Drinks being contained in bottles, are less convenient for 
transport, and the vessels are liable to fracture. Balls, moreover, are to 
be quickly thrust down an animal's throat; require no assistance for 
their administration; and being wrapped in paper are not exposed to 
inquisitive discussion as to their ingredients. Drinks being inclosed in 
glass, protected only by a cork, are open to investigation, and likely to 
provoke remarks which are not always soothing to the pride of a pre- 
tender ; liquids likewise necessitate more time should be devoted to their 
exhibition, and generally require the assistance which is not invariably 
at hand to aid the veterinary surgeon. 

The above reasons and objections are not without influence upon 
practitioners, whose earnings are greatly dependent upon the speed of 
their movements; who generally give the medicines to those animals 
they treat, and habitually carry with them, ready compounded, the drugs 
which they administer. Drinks, moreover, demand several bulky articles 
-for their proper administration, and are apt to soil the person who de- 



7t 



PHYSIC. 



livers them. Balls, as a rule, call for no other apparatus than the hand. 
Moreover, it causes delay at starting, if there are twenty or thirty drinks 
to be previously mixed, bottled, labeled, incased in paper and so p'acked 
as to be in no peril of breakage ; whereas any number of balls can be 
almost instantaneously transferred from the drawer in the surgery into 
the gig at the door. 

The usual mode of giving a drink is, moreover, a complex business. 
A twitch is mostly kept in regularly appointed stables, and the string or 
loop is fixed over the animal's upper jaw, prior to other measures being 
proceeded with. The groom then grasps the stick and takes his place 
by the shoulder of the horse. At a previously arranged signal, he raises 
the pole ; the string, paining the gums under which it is fixed, causes 
the head of the quadruped to be elevated. Supposing the horn having 
the larger mouth to be employed, the drink is then emptied into the 
hollow of this rude appliance until the liquid nearly fills the interior. 
The fluid is next carried upward, two fingers of the operator's left hand 
being fastened on to the gums, so as to further expand the jaws and 
enable the veterinary surgeon to steady his body while straining to ad- 
minister the medicine. The large end is pushed into the quadruped's 
mouth, and, by a sudden movement of the wrist, the contents of the 
horn are meant to be splashed upon the animal's tongue. 





THE COMMON FOBM OF THE HORN EMPLOYED 
TO ADMINISTER DRINKS. 



AN IMPROVED FORM OF HORN. 



This, which is the more common method of administering a drink, is 
open to several objections. The horn, being of a limited capacity, can 
hold but a small quantity; and the lengthened time required for fre- 
quent replenishing, necessitates that the animal should be long held in 
an attitude of unnatural constraint. In the next place, the fluid is, by 
the action of the wrist, rather rudely thrown, than gently emptied, into 



PHYSIC. 



73 



the mouth, much of the medicine is generally lost, and no little of it^ 
guided by the inserted fingers of the operator, is apt to find its way 
down the sleeve of his left arm. 

To remedy these obvious defects, the tip of the horn was sawn off ; 
while a piece of wood supplied a bottom to the larger extremity. A 
rude bottle was thus formed that would hold a larger amount of fluid, 
and from which the medicine could flow more gradually. The smaller 
opening afi'orded greater facilities for inserting that end between the 
horse's extended jaws, and was less likely to pain, when introduced into 
the animal's mouth. Still, drinks usually consisted of much more than 
the horn of an ox would contain, and as the smaller opening demanded 
greater care, when the article was being replenished, little time was 
saved by the last improvement. 





A TIN BOTTLE TO HOLD THREE PINTS. 



THE MANNER OF USING THE TIN BOTTLE. 



A large tin bottle was next employed. It is of dimensions sufficiently 
capacious to require no replenishing ; this was an advantage in one direc- 
tion, an objection in the other; for in proportion to size it became incon- 
venient to transport. It rather aggravated than ameliorated the fault 
urged against drinks, because of their bulk. The mode of its employ- 
ment is made plain in the right-hand illustration, where a loop of string 
is depicted as hung upon the prong of a pitchfork, and is made to do 
duty for a twitch — such a substitute being far from unusual, even in 
well-appointed stables. 

Should the operator, having much fluid at command, fill the mouth 
too full, or the animal cough during the time of its administration, the 
administrator is saturated with the medicine. Any irritation of the 
larynx is invariably productive of this efi"ect ; the result of which a 
reader will the better understand, after the relative situation of those 
who are engaged in delivering a drench is fully comprehended. 

The misfortunes which the delivery of drinks almost necessarily in- 



■76 



PHYSIC. 



volve, will very readily account for any amount of dislike to the fluid 
form of medicine, more especially when it is stated that veterinary sur- 
geons are somewhat slow in adopting new ideas, but seem, with the 
fervor and tenacity ignorance displays toward a favorite superstition, to 
love and cling to the practices in which they have been educated. 




GENERAX METHOD OP ADMINISTERING A DRINK TO A HORSE. 



Else, it must have occurred to some member of a large profession that 
to violently oppose the instincts of an animal was hardly commendable 
in people who professed an observance and a worship of nature's teach- 
ing. Most animals, however, and the horse among the number, lower 
the mouth during the act of drinking. The veterinary surgeon, when 
proceeding in his professional capacity, employs a twitch, with which 
the head is to be violently upheld while a fluid is being deglutated. 

To illustrate the consequence of such conduct, the reader will pardon 
the author if he state the results of such opposite proceedings upon a 
dog in his possession. A saucer of milk being placed upon the floor, 
the head is lowered and the liquid lapped, without the act being charac- 
terized by any unusual circumstance. But should the vessel be held on 
the ordinary level of the mouth, the draught is certain to be interrup^ied 



PHYSIC. 



tT 



by repeated fits of coughing. Now, the danger that exists of the horse 
coughing and spasmodically drawing the fluid upon the lungs, consti- 
tutes the strongest argument urged against the administration of drinks; 
but such an objection sounds oddly if he who listens to it is aware that, 
during the administration of fluids, the horse's mouth is fixed according 
to the manner which will certainly provoke the obnoxious act in another 
quadruped. 




GIVINO A DRINK, ACCORDING TO THE QDIET METHOD. 



All this is very sad and may readily be corrected. Let men endeavor 
to rightfully interpret the disposition of the horse. The creature is a 
most pleasant study ; it is so timid, so loving and so confiding, that it 
immediately responds to the kindness which is intelligible to its under- 
standing. Should it hang back, the fault rather lies with its limited 
comprehension than with the promptings of its inclination. Let the 
person who intends to deliver a drink fearlisssly approach the animal : 
allow the huge nostrils to smell their new acquaintance, and not till the 
process is concluded, proceed to such trivial familiarities as may estab- 
lish perfect trustfulness between the man and his dependent. So soon 
as the steed's confidence is gained, the animal is all submission to the 



IS PHYSIC. 

pleasure of its superioi'. Then let the practitioner uncork the bottle, 
and, putting the left hand gently under the quadruped's jaw, empty with 
the other the contents, gradually, through the interspace which divides 
the incisors from the molar teeth. 

But when adopting the above plan, the operator must be alone. ISTo 
noisy or officious assistant must be near at hand to excite alarm or to 
create distrust. No pain must be inflicted ; no angry words should be 
employed ; no violent or hasty action ought to be used to frighten native 
susceptibility. All must be quiet. Should the animal be slow to swallow 
a nauseous draught, the creature must not be scolded for a natural dis- 
like ; but it should be encouraged by kind and cheerful accents, spoken 
as softly as though the words were addressed to a sick child. So alive 
is the equine heart to the seductiveness of benevolence, so unsuspecting 
is the full confidence of its species, and so happy is its spirit made by 
the praises of its superior, that rather than not deserve his commenda- 
tion it will gulp down the most distasteful solution. 

Blistering. — It is not praiseworthy to the human race that the animal 
given to man, with a mind thus impressible and yearning for kindness, 
should be treated with severity, and regarded as a brute, to be beaten 
and to be subdued. Such, however, is the case, and upon the poor body 
of this amiable life all kinds of cruelties are practiced. There is no bar- 
barity more common than to blister the legs of the quadruped. Only 
of late years has the blistering application been somewhat reduced in 
strength ; but it is still far more potent than is necessary. Our fathers, 
however, added all kinds of fiery and irritating drugs to Spanish fly, and 
never used to filter the extract; whereby particles got into the sores and 
cracks induced by the blister, and it was common for large pieces of skin 
to be removed by the sloughing process. A blemish was thus created. 

Horses have perished under the agony attendant upon the blistering 
of all four feet. It is, however, still a recognized custom for horse doc- 
tors to score a leg or sometimes two legs with the red-hot iron, and over 
the lines thus created on a living frame to apply a liquid blister. To 
fully appreciate the abhorrent barbarity or the inutility of such a cus- 
tom, the reader must recognize that animals suffer awfully from the 
wounds occasioned by fire, and understand that the sores are newly 
made, when the irritating liquid is placed upon the tender parts. A 
blister necessitates that the oil which contains the extract of the fly 
should be thoroughly rubbed in. Therefore the horse, when blistered, 
after having been fired, has to endure the friction of a rough hand, 
applied with all the coarse energy of an uneducated man, made upon 
a member smarting under the agony produced by the agent of which 
the creature has an instinctive dread. 



PHYSIC. T9 

Blisters, as at present used, are far too powerful. Were they diluted 
with three times their bulk of bland oil, or of solution of soap, they would 
be equally effective and far less dangerous. But, unfortunately, there is 
a prejudice among the partially educated, to which class nearly all veter- 
inary surgeons belong, in favor of potency in their applications. Such 
persons seem to reckon the benefit to be produced according to the 
strength of the agent employed. By what other reason is it possible 
to explain the foolish perversity which still clings to the abuse of the 
heated iron ? By what other motive can we account for the prejudice 
which tempts the use of the feai-ful blistering oil, as now commonly 
exhibited ? 

The parts of the horse most generally blistered are the legs, and the 
explanation commonly given to excuse the folly is a desire "to freshen 
the old animal on the pins," or "to brighten up the manner of going." 
The legs are parts of the living frame, and one part can hardly fail with- 
out the general system sympathizing. The author was once as tired as 
the horse commonly may be supposed to be ; but, on that occasion, his 
feet were restored, long before his body recovered from its exhaustion. 
Such a personal testimony seems to witness that fatigue affects the sys- 
tem generally. Indeed, the legs may be the means of progression ; J)ut 
it is the life which puts them in action, and it is the nerves which trans- 
mit energy to the muscles; none less ignorant than the generality of 
veterinary surgeons and the lower order of horse proprietors, would have 
conceived the possibility of restoring animation to a debilitated system 
by torturing the parts in which the symptoms of decay are most promi- 
nently testified. 

Moreover, there is a maxim, first made known by John Hunter, and 
subsequently recognized by the profession of which he was the ornament. 
This maxim declares that "two great inflammations cannot exist in the 
same body at the same time." Upon the truth of tliis discovery, the 
practice of counter-irritation is based. Then to fire and to blister simul- 
taneously may increase the torture of the poor existence thus barbar- 
ously treated ; but, according to the doctrine largely accepted by the 
medical profession of this country, the double process accomplishes 
nothing surgical or curative, since the blister must destroy the action of 
the fire ; and the man who is greedy to obtain the benefits of both oper- 
ations, secures the advantages of neither measure. 

To blister, however, is a very antique custom ; so, also, is the appli- 
cation of fire, which was first performed upon the human body. Old 
medicine does not bear a very good character, and only exemplifies the 
much which suffering can endure, or the little which cruelty can accom- 
plish. So far as horses are concerned, little would be sacrificed were the 



80 PHYSIC. 

entire list of vesicatories lost to the knowledge of mankind. The blister 
is, according to present veterinary practice, employed more often to 
gratify the passing whim of some wayward proprietor than with any 
medical intention or with the remotest regard for the quadruped. A 
man, while lounging through the stable of an evening, a prey to lassi- 
tude and the victim of idle thoughts, but without the slightest pretense 
to medical knowledge, may conceive he will have the entire stable blis- 
tei'ed "right through," and few veterinary surgeons will presume to 
expostulate with so wild a notion. 

The compliance of the professional attendant is, however, in strict 
keeping with opinions implied by the expressions commonly employed 
by "horsemen." Thus, it is very general to hear these persons speak 
of — "a good horse with battered legs" — "a beautiful animal, but with 
legs that have done their work" — "an excellent frame, but not having a 
leg to stand upon," etc. Such phrases are sheer nonsense 1 But they 
serve to countenance the equine superstition which regards the legs as 
distinct from the body. The stable-man cannot conceive a Avant of live- 
liness in the motions to be one of the indications of failing health. Yet 
this symptom pervades all nature. It is exhibited by beasts, by birds, 
by fishes, and by insects ; nay, the very vegetables, when disease attacks 
them, no longer spread their branches to the breeze, but droop their heads 
and incline their bodies earthward. 

To propagate such opinions, how^ever, must destroy much of the power 
so dearly loved by the vulgar horse owner, and abolish much of the pleas- 
lire such a person experiences when surveying his long rows of miserable 
dependents ! These men are always corrupt ! It is astonishing how 
unfitted human frailty is to possess absolute authority in any shape ! 
The men who live and think in stables are never so happy as when ex- 
ercising their despotic power. The next illustration is an example of 
this fact. An omnibus proprietor has entered to speak with a veteri- 
nary surgeon, who is witnessing the man's orders fulfilled on the fore- 
legs of a wretched stud. Let the reader contemplate this engraving, 
and he will soon perceive the animals stand in need of something far 
less costly than any mixture which can proceed from the cheapest 
pharmacy. 

It will be remarked that the creatures represented are separated 
by "bales," or long poles, suspended by chains from the ceiling. This 
kind of arrangement permits more horses to be packed into a limited 
apartment, and is, therefore, adopted whenever the expense of lodging 
becomes a primary consideration. It will also have occurred to the 
spectator that the roof is depicted as very low, and the gangway or free 
thoroughfare behind the animals is exhibited as exceedingly narrow. 



PHYSIC. Si 

Now, creatures imprisoned in such a building are actually perishing 
of starvation ! The food, the water, and the medical attendance may 
each of its kind be unexceptionable ; but the animals housed in such a 
locality soon droop from positive inanition. To breathe, is the primary 
necessity of existence. There is no living thing that can thrive where 
air is excluded. The quadrupeds represented below have to pass twenty- 
two out of every twenty -four hours in a locality barely lofty enough for 
each to stand upright in. Let the reader, knowing the duration of cap- 
tivity, conjecture how long it will be ere the huge lungs of a horse have 
inhaled and contaminated the limited amount of atmosphere which the 
place can contain, even were such an abode contemplated as the dwell- 
ing of a single subject. 




BLISTERIXG A STABLEFCL OF OMNIBUS HORSES. 



It is true, such sheds are seldom air tight. "Were all draughts excluded, 
the prisoners would speedily be released from their captivity ; but the 
wind holes, though large enough to prolong misery, are too small to 
render such places the abodes of health. The wretched inmates cannot 
be tortured into a show of activity. When ^vill the legislature, in its 
wisdom, notice these hot-beds of contagion ? When will it empower the 
police ofiBcer to enter any stable and authorize him to destroy the animals 
therein, hopelessly diseased and purposely concealed ? Who can, view- 
ing the stables where the hardest worked of the equine race are stowed 
away, wonder that glanders is rarely absent from such nurseries for con- 
tamination ? 

6 



82 PHYSIC. 

Horses have thus been housed, and have been physicked, fired, and 
blistered, for ages. The folly of such practices is continued even to the 
present hour. However, let the gentleman who keeps his stable filled 
take warning from the errors of his inferiors ; and when the groom in- 
forms him that "Blossom" is getting stale upon her legs, refuse to have 
the creature tortured. A blister incapacitates a horse for six weeks. 
The cessation of toil for such a period may do good ; but let the man 
who pretends to judge in this matter grant the holiday which the 
measures, if adopted, would occupy, and employ the time in looking 
jealously around his premises to ascertain wherefore his dumb servant 
flags! 

Let no man blister a horse's legs. There is no motor agent situated 
in or near to those parts. The shin, foot, and pastern are almost with- 
out muscles. There is nothing, therefore, which could be freshened or 
rendered more brisk. But these parts are susceptible of the acutest 
agony. They are largely supplied with purely sensitive nerves. Con- 
sequently, let all gentlemen discharge the veterinary surgeon who pro- 
poses to blister the legs of their horses. He does so merely to gain 
time : the professional man is totally unworthy of confidence who can 
play with his employers' ignorance and tamper with his patients' sensa- 
tions, merely from reasons of policy or the chance of pecuniary benefit 
to himself! The author has beheld hundreds of blisters applied to the 
legs, but he cannot remember the instance in which such applications 
were productive of the slightest good. 

Blisters are seldom required, and are only beneficial as counter-irri- 
tants. Equine medicines are generally too coarse, and much too power- 
ful. Some practitioners mingle euphorbium, corrosive sublimate, aqua 
fortis, etc. with the blistering agent, to increase its potency. Therefore, 
never procure the oil of cantharides from a veterinarian. Never use 
blistering ointment of any description. Stuffs of this last kind are, for 
the most part, made of the refuse flies, exhausted by having been used 
to form the oil of cantharides. Buy the oil of some respectable chemist. 
Add to this four times its bulk of olive oil; should it not blister after 
it has been once used, it may be rubbed in a second or a third time. 
Counter-irritation is certain to be thus secured, and vesication is only 
a sign which pleases the uneducated eye rather than benefits the 
animal. 

Never employ any oil that is not perfectly clear. It should be filtered 
after it is made, and the slightest opacity is proof that some impurity 
is present. This direction is imperative ; for, though the ingredients 
which compose the oil are not expensive, there is scarcely an article in 
the pharmacopoeia more liable to adulteration. Let, therefore, the liquid 



PHYSIO. 



8B 




A BOTTLB CONTAINING OIL OF CANTHAKrDES. 



seem as transparent as that which is represented in the accompanying 
illustration. 

It is a common custom with most 
veterinarians to purge the horse befoi'e 
they blister its legs. The intention is to 
remove any lurking irritability out of 
the animal's system ; but such irritability 
will most probably be provoked by their 
coarse and potent blistering agents ; there- 
fore, a purgative, by increasing the de- 
bility, is only likely to render the quad- 
ruped more sensitive to outw^ard impres- 
sions. A nice "freshener" is embodied, 
to the eye of reason, in a drastic pur- 
gative, followed by an active irritant 
applied to a most sensitive part of the 
body! 

Whenever a blister is adopted, rather 
too little than too much oil should be 
used. Enough to permeate the hair and 
reach the skin is imperative; but the 

action rather depends on the amount of friction which accompanies the 
agent than on the quantity of the vesicatory that may be employed. 
The friction should be regulated by the condition of the surface on 
which the oil has to act, and all adjacent tender places, as the points of 
flexion in joints, parts where the skin is thin or is thrown into crevices, 
should be previously covered with a layer of simple cerate, after the 
method exemplified in the left-hand illustration on the next page, wherein 
the back of the pastern is exhibited as thus protected. 

After the part has been rubbed for ten minutes in summer, and a 
quarter of an hour during winter, all oil may be wiped off the hair. Its 
presence there can do no good ; but as oil becomes more liquid with the 
continuance of warmth, the heat of the body may cause the blistering 
agent to run on to parts which it is not desirable to subject to its 
action. 

After the horse has been blistered, it is customary to tie up the head 
and put around the animal's neck a kind of rude apparatus denominated, 
but wherefore the author cannot tell, "a cradle." This last instrument 
is designed to prevent the creature from gnawing the blistered surface. 
No such act will, however, be indulged where the agent employed is 
pr.'portioned to the sensitiveness of the quadruped ; but it is the agony 
produced by the effect of undue stimulation which generates the mad- 



84 



PHYSIC. 



uess that induces the wretched creature to use its formidable teeth in 
tearing its own flesh. 




THE BACK OF THE PASTERN AND THE HEEL PRO- 
TECTED BY BEING COATED WITH A THICK LATER 
OF SIMPLE CERATE. 




A HORSE S LEG AFTER THE APPLICATION OF A 
BLISTER. 



About three days after the application of the blister, the surface will 
have become dry and incrusted with a solid exudation. It is well, at 
this period, to soften the part with some emollient liquid, and one can 
hardly be found better suited to this purpose than that known as lead 
liniment. It is made by mingling together one part of Goulard's lotion 




A BRUSH FOR APPLYING LEAD LINIMENT TO THE LEO OF A HORSE -n-HICH HAS 
RECENTLY BEEN BUSTERED. 



and two parts of olive oil, whereby is formed a thick creamy compound. 
The oil soothes the harshness of the exudation, while the lead serves to 
mitigate any pain which may reside in the part. This mixture, being 
well shaken, is applied to the surface by means of what cooks call "a 
paste brush." 

The liniment usually causes the "crusts" to fall off; but the hair gen- 
erally comes off at the same time, testifying the severe irritation to which 
the skin has been subjected. 

The most pliant medical individual — the pedantic man who always 



PHYSIC. 85 

acknowledges everything emanating from the schools to be correct — 
would, the author imagines, be puzzled to discover any necessary con- 
nection between the processes of balling, blistering, firing, and bleed- 
ing; yet somehow the four operations are associated in veterinary prac- 
tice. A ball reduces the bodily activity; a bleeding lowers the action 
of vitality ;' irritants are thought to stimulate organs to which they are 
applied, but to lessen the general tonicity. An animal subjected to the 
first action appears fitted to dispense with the second ; while the last two 
seem somewhat similar to the first. But there is no accounting for in- 
congruities when men, deserting reason, consent to adopt routine as a 
guide in the treatment of so capricious a development as disease. 

Bleeding. — To lose blood was once deemed a healthful custom by the 
human race. Then, horses were regularly depleted every rise and fall. 
An old practitioner can remember the period when, on a Sunday morn- 
ing, he beheld long sheds full of agricultural quadrupeds waiting to be 
bled. The fleam used to be struck into the first horse ; then the entire 
row were, in succession, similarly treated. The operator afterward re- 
turned, and, pinning up the wound which had been made in the neck of 
the first animal, again moved down the line, pinning as he went. No 
account was taken of the amount lost by each patient, nor was any pains 
thought needful to control the current that flowed upon the ground ; but 
the creatures did not all suffer an equal depletion. The fleam was soon 
struck; to pin up, however, took a comparatively long time for its per- 
formance. The first horse of the group, therefore, lost but httle blood ; 
while the last of the line bled for a considerable period before its turn to 
be attended to arrived. 

The foregoing anecdote will show how nice our fathers were in their 
operations; but it is sad when we reflect that all this carnage was a 
sacrifice made to a mistaken idea. Human medicine has abandoned the 
antiquated custom. Veterinary physic, however, is not quite so versa- 
tile; still many quiet spots in the country may be found where old 
physic is in force, both with the employers and the practitioner. Dogs, 
even in the metropolis, are sometimes bled ; and there still exist persons 
who esteem the use of the lancet upon these animals to be a laudatory 
accomplishment. Cats were, formerly, operated upon; and the author 
knows an aged lady whose medical practice was confined to depleting 
grimalkins. There exist, even at the present enhghtened period, few of 
the equine species which do not bear several scars, each testifying to a 
separate operation. Raise the jugular vein in the neck of any animal, 
by simply stopping the downward current that flows through the vessel ; 
it is ten to one but numerous circular prominences will bulge forth, to 
denote the medical activity which has been lavished on the quadruped. 



86 



PHYSIC. 



No matkr what may be the age, the condition, or the occupation of 
the horse, certain practitioners always discover that the mute drudge 
requires depletion ; thus, an unscrupulous man may at most times earn 
a ready shilling by performing an easy operation. Every kind of ani- 
mal is liable to be so treated or so abused; and there are very few 
stables throughout this kingdom in which the sight of the fleam, blood 
stick, and can do not create the groom's delight. The strangest fact is, 
that most rural proprietors love to see the purple life drained from the 
necks of their possessions ; and bitter are the reproaches usually lavished 
on the veterinarian should a horse perish of any disease without the 
fatal termination having been hastened by the favorite measure. In- 
deed so fully are several country practitioners aware of this probability, 
that it is customary with them, when alone, to strike the vein and to pin 
up the orifice immediately. The necessary sign can then be adduced, 
should death end the case ; and a professional reputation be thereby 
saved from the assaults of aggravated stupidity. 




/' "\^ 



RAISING THE JUGULAR VEIN. 



To show the necessity of venesection in most forms of disease, the 
author must be pardoned if he intrudes upon the reader a portion of his 
own experience. Some yeai's ago a medical man, then residing in West- 
bourne Terrace, kept a well-stocked stable. The family going out of 
town during the autumn, some of the animals, much against the author's 
opinion, were allowed a few weeks' "run at grass." 

When the horses were taken up, none were found to have been bene- 



PHYSIC. 87 

fited ; but one was discovered to be much worse for its period of liberty. 
It was very weak, and its constitution evidently was shaken, for nothing 
seemed capable of invigorating it. If put into harness and driven merely 
round to the street door, the body was sure to be white with perspira- 
tion, and the poor quadruped exhibited signs of exhaustion. If permit- 
ted to remain in the stable, the creature would generally be found with 
the head depressed, the corn untouched, the breathing audible, and the 
body leaning for support against the trevise. 

The animal was in this state when the family again left London for a 
few weeks ; the horse was taken with them by railroad. Before they 
quitted town, the author found occasion to speak with the proprietor. 
The v/riter said that, during the sojourn of the family in the country, it 
was probable the urgency of the symptoms would necessitate the calling 
in of a local veterinary surgeon ; therefore the proprietor was warned 
that the ailing quadruped was on no account to be bled ; for to deplete 
a life in so exhausted a condition was positive slaughter. 

As the author had conjectured, so events literally happened. The 
symptoms suddenly became alarming. The attendance of the nearest 
veterinarian was requested. To him the warning given to the proprietor 
was repeated. The gentleman replied that the author had not seen the 
animal in its then serious state, or he could not have tendered such 
advice. Medical etiquette forbade positive injunctions. The operation 
was performed, and the family returned to town leaving a carcass behind 
theml 

It is very seldom that the system of a horse, when doing full work, can 
endure depletion. The labor is exhausting, and the toil is sufficiently 
severe to employ it all had the animal twice its normal energy. Many 
observant stable-men are of opinion that, nurture as they may, the prov- 
ender consumed cannot be equal to the work. There are, however, too 
many persons who study to underfeed, and who nevertheless are morally 
convinced that every quadruped in their keeping not only possesses a 
sufficiency of vigor, but can part with a gallon or two of blood, twice in 
every year, with positive advantage. 

Here are two opposite convictions ; and the cost of horse flesh to each 
party, could we inspect the private accounts, would certainly best settle 
the dispute. But as men mostly object to laying open their books to 
public investigation, we must, therefore, endeavor to decide this point by 
drawing inferences, after having submitted the lives of most quadrupeds 
to review. None, except the Avealthy, keep horses, save for use. The 
feelings of men are seldom gratified by feeding idle animals. Two horses 
very commonly have to perform extra duty, while the master is looking 
about him and in no haste to purchase a third laborer. Barely do we 



88 



PHYSIC. 



find three animals are kept where the owner has full employment only 
for two of his slaves. 

The horse, therefore, is generally worked to the limits of its strength. 
That there may be no doubt upon this matter, the person who has to 
judge of its capabilities is he who has an interest in the amount of an 
animal's exertions. The fact is, however, proved by the wonder excited 
when a quadruped is recorded to have reached the natural period of its 
existence. The great majority of horses in this country perish of ex- 
haustion before their maturity has been attained. The sad reality, that 
of the numbers reared in England the great majority of humanity's hum- 
ble, obedient, and willing slaves are goaded to early graves, before all 
their second teeth are up, and before the consolidation of their bones fits 
them to endure the strain of fatigue, too fearfully establishes the fate 
which beauty and submission receives at the hands of avarice. 

Man is a hard task-master ! He was so when the pyramids were 
raised ; he is so still in the Southern States of America. There is some- 
thing wrong in the creature who can thus abuse all that serve him. Had 
the horse twenty times its present strength, it would still be below the 
point of human requirement. It is a very painful occupation to look 
into a London street, and, having an understanding which can interpret 
equine significances, to observe the lame, the deformed, the starved, the 
overloaded, and the weary animals staggering along the thoroughfare, 
but to perceive none without the goad, to enforce exertion, flourished 
by its side. Yet the creatures thus used, unconscious of a holiday and 
worked through sickness or through suffering, are thought by some per- 
sons to possess such a redundancy of health that they can support or be 
benefited by the life's blood being drained, at stated periods, out of their 
wretched bodies ! 

Nevertheless it is possible a timely depletion may, upon certain occa- 
sions, save life. Neither the present 
reader nor the writer may witness so 
rare an occurrence ; yet because of the 
possibility, every horseman should be 
equal to such an emergency. For the 
performance of so trivial an operation 
certain tools are imperatively necessary. 
The first among these is a blood can or 
a tin pail, which is generally divided, 
by indented lines, into eight equal sec- 
tions. The receptacle being made to 
contain two gallons, each compartment, 
when filled, indicates a quart to have been withdrawn. Wretched horses 




A BLOOD CAN, WniCH IS MARKED TO INDI- 
CATE WHEN A QUART OF FLUID HAS BEEN 
EXTRACTED. 



PHYSIC. 



89 



have been drained to a greater extent even than two gallons ; but should 
the reader possess a blood can, it is hoped that it will be indeed an 
extreme case in which he would behold the vessel once filled. 

One or two quarts should be the limits of an ordinary venesection ; 
but even that quantity may be of much more service, when aiding the 
circulation, than when withdrawn and permitted to coagulate apart from 
the body. Many practitioners, however, deplete without either excuse 
or justification. Having opened a vessel, they will allow the stream to 
flow until the poor horse staggers. Some are proud not to possess a 
blood can ; but they hold up the stable pail to catch the vital current, 
and are quite content that the most ample drain of the system, conducted 
under their supervision, cannot be otherwise than restorative. 

The next instrument requisite is a fleam. This article is much pref- 
erable to the lancet, though there exists a species of foppery among 
veterinary surgeons which tempts them to employ human implements. 




FLEAMS, OF THE NEWEST FORM, OPEN AND SnUT. 



For that reason they flourish a lancet as the more scientific indicator. A 
lancet is, certainly, necessary to puncture the eye vein, which is visible 
upon the cheek of the horse ; but as regards a vessel which is as large 
as a cart rope, for such is the dimensions of the animal's jugular, this 
last cannot demand the exhibition of vast scientific attainment to pierce 
it, or admit of the display of nice manipulation in him who operates on 
such a structure. For this reason the old-fashioned fleam is very much 
to be preferred. Assuredly it does not appear so pretty as the lancet; 
but it always cuts with certainty and leaves a limited orifice ; whereas 
the more genteel blade has inflicted awkward gashes upon living flesh 
when the creature proved restless under its infliction. 

The instrument with which the veterinarian extracts blood has been 
represented having the blade bared and having it closed. It is readily 



90 PHYSIC. 

admitted not to be of an inviting aspect; but it is not in reality quite so 
barbarous as it appears to the beholder. The point which projects from 
one side of the blade marks the extent of its cutting surface, and indicates 
the size of that puncture which the fleam can leave behind. It is more 
safe than the lancet, which, though of a more innocent aspect, has in- 
flicted wounds of awful dimensions. For the last reason, the employment 
of the lancet by veterinary surgeons is not to be commended. 

Above the cutting point of the fleam, and upon the opposite side of 
the blade, is seen what is intended to represent a bulging piece of metal. 
That indicates the place which the operator occasionally strikes with the 
side of his hand ; its intention is to afford a blunt surface for delivery of the 
blow. It is advantageous to possess a fleam of the above form, because, 
under rare circumstances, the possibility for which it provides may be 
encountered; but for general use a blood stick is mbre instantaneous, 
and is more certain in its result; wherefore it is to be preferred to 
the human hand, as giving the smarter impetus to the blade. 




A liLOOD STICK, WOICn IS LOADED AT THE LARGER END. 

A blood stick is merely a hard piece of wood, six or eight inches long, 
and turned in a lathe till it has assumed the above form. The larger end 
is then hollowed ; the cavity is loaded with lead. Such a tool, though 
very diminutive, can be made to deal a heavy blow, and it is quite power- 
ful enough to send the point of the fleam through the skin and thin 
layer of muscular fiber which externally cover the jugular vein. 

However, before any attempt is made to bleed the horse, the animal's 
eyes should be bandaged. This should invariably be done before the 
fleam or blood stick are produced ; as some quadrupeds show their intel- 
ligence by dreading the operation which most veterinary surgeons regard 
with complacency. Many persons doubt whether beasts are gifted with 
imagination ; but it is not rare to encounter a steed which will stagger 
at the sight of a fleam, and when the blood stick and can are produced, 
will give every indication of approaching syncope. Consequently, if the 
reader is determined to have his horse depleted, let the eyes be disabled 
before any instrument is produced, more especially before the stick is 
attempted to be employed. Most animals, from natural timidity, shrink 
if they can discern when the blow is about to be delivered, and the 
point of the fleam is thereby frequently displaced. 



PHYSIC. 



91 



The sight should first be obscured ; then the vessel raised ; afterward 
the fleam arranged upon the huge pipe thus brought into view; when a 
sudden blow being dealt with the blood stick will cause the current to 
spurt forth. Should any accident prevent the first attempt from being 
successful, the operator should not strike twice in the same place. Re- 
peated blows upon the same spat are likely to bruise the part, or to 
cause a ragged wound ; neither of which circumstances are favorable to 
the healing process. Leave the slight incision to nature, for it very 
rarely requires any treatment, and choosing a fresh mark, repeat the 
process with better success. 




Blood being obtained by the operator, the groom approaches bearing 
the blood can. This the man presses against the horse's neck, thereby 
impeding the downward stream within the vessel and causing the vital 
current to gush forth. 

Whatever may be the urgency of the business which may demand your 
presence elsewhere, never quit at this stage of the proceeding. How- 
ever experienced or meritorious the servant may be, always remain until 



92 PHYSIC. 

the operation is concluded. These poor men invariably possess opinions 
of their own that are stronger because of the ignorance upon which such 
notions repose. The groom may have seen a gallon, or even two gal- 




PRESSINQ THE BLOOD CAN AGAINST THE NECK, TO ARREST THE DOWNWARD CURRENT, AND TO 
CAUSE THE BLOOD TO FLOW FORTH. 



Ions extracted, when in his last situation. Such people delight in strong 
measures ; and he will sneer at the one or two quarts you may desire 
should be withdrawn. Be absent only for a brief space, and you may be 
certain your directions have been violated, although on your return the 
most solemn of faces should protest to the contrary. 

"When the quantity has been extracted, remove the 
pressure below the orifice and the outward stream will 
cease. Then proceed to pin up. Having rendered the 
point of a pin somewhat angular, by cutting off" the tip, 
the wire will pierce the integument the more readily. 
Drive it through each side of the wound, and, being in 
this situation, twist, after the fashion of a figure of oo, 
some tow or thread, or a hair pulled from the horse's 
tail, round its either extremity. Subsequently remove 
so much of the pin as may protrude, and the orifice will be closed by 
what surgeons denominate a twisted suture. 




TWISTED SUTURE. 



PHYSIC. 



98 



When performing this, a few precautions are imperative. In the 
first instance, the surfaces should not be brought immediately together. 
The wound should be left open until the lips become sticky, as when in 
that condition they unite the more readily. Next, when closing the 
orifice, all hairs should be removed, which is sometimes difficult should 
the integument have been torn asunder with a blunt fleam. The skin 
then is twisted and forced from its integrity ; but if a sharp or proper 
instrument has been used, the presence of hair is never annoying; indeed 
it seldom requires attention. 

The sides of the incision should be adjusted with all nicety, because, 
subsequently to bleeding, healing by the first intention, or by the speedi- 
est natural process, is desirable. Hairs, when present, prevent that union 
from being perfected. They irritate the part and act as minute setons, 
which provoke suppuration. The advent of the last action is always to 
be feared after a vein has been opened. The pus gravitates into the 
vessel and the blood becomes vitiated. The consequences frequently 
are fatal, and are always much to be lamented. 




A HORSE, AFTER BEING BLED, HAS THE HEAD TIED TO THE MANGER FOR T-\TE.\TT-FOUR HOURS. 



When the wound has been properly secured, all has not been accom- 
plished. The rack and manger must be cleared. Pood or drink must 
be withheld for twenty-four hours. The halter must be fastened up to 



94 



PHYSIC. 



the bars of the hay rack ; for the animal which has just been rendered 
faint by having its blood extracted must, for the tedious space of one 
entire day and night, neither feed, allay its thirst, nor repose its tottering 
limbs. Some certain benefit, substantiated by very potent proofs, are 
necessary to justify the measure which must be followed by such depri- 
vation; for if lack of nutriment and want of rest can generate debility, 
what must be the effect of enforced abstinence, when ensuing upon a 
sickening depletion ? 



i 




CHAPTER III. 

SHOEING — ITS ORIGIN, ITS USES, AND ITS VARIETIES. 

Shoeing a horse is understood to signify fastening a piece of iron to 
the horn whicli envelops tlie foot of the animal. Such an operation, at 
first glance, appears to be so simple an affair as to admit of few remarks ; 
but there is no subject associated with veterinary science on which more 
research has been expended, about which more bitter discussion has been 
indulged, or with regard to which proprietors and practitioners are more 
at variance. Certainly no matter can possibly be more intimately con- 
nected with the sufferings and the comforts of the equine race. 





EARLY ARABIAS SHOE. 



ARABIAN SHOE OF A MODEKN DATE. 



The custom of fixing iron to the hoof of the quadruped would seem, 
at the present moment, to be all but universal. This habit was probably 
derived from the East. In portions of the Desert of Arabia a primitive 
looking shoe is still employed, which, like most things in that region, 
has possibly remained unaltered during the passage of centuries. Such 
articles retain the impress of a by-gone era, being merely pieces of sheet- 
iron stamped, not forged, according to a particular pattern. The reader 
may be puzzled to form an accurate notion of such things; therefore 
illustrations, representing present and ancient shoes, are appended. Both 
partake of the same general characteristics, but, among a people so widely 
scattered as "the children of the Desert," doubtless numerous variations, 
as regards particulars, might be selected. 

(95) 



96 



SHOEING. 



The preceding look like things produced during the childhood of 
civilization ; but to assure the reader that at one period horse shoes 
resembling the foregoing were almost universal, below is subjoined 
sketches of those adopted, even at a recent date, by the Moorish, the 
Persian, and the Portuguese nations. These people are widely distrib- 






A MOORISH, A PERSIAN, AND A PORTUGUESE SHOE. COPIED FROM GOODWIN'S SYSTEM OF SHOEING HORSES. 

uted ;' but they all are characterized by the tenacity with which each has 
clung to the habits of its ancestors. The shape pervading the examples 
brought forward is too eccentric, the generic likeness is too remarkable, 
and the peculiarities of feature impressed on each is too conspicuous, 
to permit of their united evidence being pushed on one side with any 
commonplace reference to an accidental resemblance. 

Succeeding the former engravings is appended an authentic sketch of 
the old English horse shoe which was in common use at the commencement 

of the last century. When compared 
with the plate of the Arab, which doubt- 
less was the original, it assuredly exhib- 
its signs of intention. The calkin, in- 
tended to prevent slipping, we here see, 
as likewise in the foregoing examples, 
is by no means a modern invention. 
The position of the nail holes has been 
materially altered: they have been 
moved from the center, and have been 
made to range around the outer margin 
and to pierce the solid horn of the toe, 
which previously was scrupulously 
spared. The fastenings, likewise, have 
increased in number, having grown from eight to fourteen. The central 
opening has been enlarged ; but the thickness of the iron and the gen- 
eral figure, however, demonstrate the source whence the original was 
derived. 

Thin plates of iron were once nailed as shoes to the hoofs throughout 




OLD ENGUSH SnOE. COPIED FROM CLARK'S 
WORK ON SHOEING. 



SHOEING. 97 

Great Britain. The breadth was not, perhaps, considered a decided dis- 
advantage, when roads were few and much marshy soil had to be crossed 
in a day's journey. But if this pecuHar form enabled a steed to walk 
more securely on a soft surface, the suction, inseparable from such land, 
must also have exposed the animal to the frequent loss of the appendage. 
When regarding these unavoidable results, we can perceive the reasons 
which have dictated all the subsequent alterations. The central opening 
had been enlarged, iii the expectation of thereby counteracting the suck- 
ing effects attending the movements over a marshy country ; while the 
nails had been increased in number, in the expectation of thus gaining 
additional security. The fastenings had likewise been ranged round the 
rim, so that these might be driven directly through the hardest part of, 
and have longer hold upon, the most resistant portion of the hora. 

Such plates were at one time, no doubt, in general use throughout 
Great Britain ; and illustrating whence they were derived, there may be 
adduced a well-known fact. The race-horse is of almost pure Eastern 
blood. The trainer's stable is a very conservative locality, into which 
changes slowly enter, and where names are retained long after their ap- 
plicability has ceased. A thorough-bred is spoken of to this day as 
running in "plates;" although the contest is decided in shoes resembling 
those worn by other animals, only of lighter make and of the highest 
possible finish. 

The aspect of the old English shoe evidently suggests a resort to the 
hammer; it also indicates that the introduction of regular roads had 
began to compel the employment of a closer and harder species of metal 
than heretofore had been esteemed necessary, '^o modern Nimrod dare, 
however, essay to career across the best-drained portion of country on a 
horse shod with such a shoe as that last represented. Before a second 
field were entered he would anticipate a steed with bare feet. No cab- 
man, however reckless, would take a quadruped on to the rank shod in 
such a fashion. Were an article of this form brought out now, no one 
who knew anything of such matters would patronize the novelty. 
Nevertheless, though it be deficient in all present requirements, it dis- 
plays certain features, which have been preserved by the smith and 
handed down from father to son until the supposed improvements have 
reached the existing generation. 

The arrangement of the nails near to the outer edge, and the fixing of 
them into the hard outer wall of the crust, are methods still followed, 
though experience has demonstrated that such numerous bodies, driven 
almost perpendicularly into a thin and a brittle substance, were better 
calculated to break the hoof than likely to hold on that which it was 
their single office to retain. The modern smith, moreover, does not 

7 



98 



SHOEING. 




THE PRESENT METHOD OP FASTENINO 
THE ENDLISH HORSE SHOE ON TO THE 
horse's FOOT. 



generally puncture the toe of the foot; but the situations of the nail 
holes and the direction of the nails within such a part must have been 
originally regarded as a vast improvement upon the prevailing customs. 
That which was formerly an innovation is, however, now the custom. 
No other mode of driving the nails is at 
present in general practice ; though the mod- 
ern veterinary surgeon recognizes all the 
evils which attend the habit, yet these evils 
he contentedly classes as diseases, instead of 
seeing in them the natural consequences of a 
faulty system. 

In the sandy Desert of Arabia, where a 
flat and perfectly dry country rendered suc- 
tion impossible, any degree of tension, how- 
ever feeble, might serve to keep the horse's 
shoe in its situation. On such a soil, eight lateral fastenings — each no 
stronger than a stout wire — might afford all needful security. The size 
of the holes assures us of the bulk of the nail heads, the projection of 
which, probably, served to give security to the tread, as well as to retain 
the metal; being inserted at one end and driven with the hammer to the 
other extremity of the opening, they might be an ample provision for 
such a purpose, when the desert permitted no vast amount of wear, and 
the nature of the animal assured lightness of motion. 

The English reader may feel disposed to sneer at the Asiatic manner 

of fastening the shoe upon the horse's 
hoof; but he will do well to inquire, 
"whether the modern method of at- 
taining the same object is altogether 
free from objection?" To enable 
him to do this, it is necessary that 
the composition of the outer wall of 
the equine hoof should be explained. 
The wall of the foot is so much 
horn as can be seen when the hoof 
rests upon the ground, and when it is 
viewed either immediately from the 
front or directly from the sides. This 
wall is supplied from two sources. 
The coronet, or the prominence to 
be seen immediately above the hoof, 
secretes the outer layer of horn, which is the darkest, is very much the 
hardest, and is the most brittle of all the constituents of the hoof The 




DIAGRAM, ILLUSTRATIVE OP THE DIFFERENT KINDS 
OP HORN COMPOSINQ THE HORSE'S HOOF. 

a a. The wall. The outer dark portion is called 
the crupt of the wall, and the light-colored, soft, 
inner horn is thrown into the lamina-', or thin 
leaves, whereby it gains extent of attachment 
to its secreting membrane. 

b. The light-cnlored and yielding horn of the sole. 

c. The tinted but elastic horn of the frog. 



SHOEING. 



99 



laminae, or the highly-sensitive covering of the internal foot, secrete the 
inward layer of horn, which is soft, tough, and devoid of color. 

These two opposite and distinct secretions are, by nature, joined to- 
gether, forming one body. Now, the intimate union of opposite proper- 
ties endues the substance, thus compounded, with the characteristics of 
both. The hard, outward horn was needed to protect the foot against 
those stones and rocks over which the animal was intended to journey. 
The internal, white horn, being fastened upon this substance, acted as a 
corrective to its harsh nature, preventing it from breaking, from splitting, 
and from chipping, which it else must have done under the weight it was 
destined to sustain, and when fulfilling the purposes to which the horse's 
foot was designed to be subjected. 

Pathology has indirectly recognized the intention of this junction, by 
acknowledging that condition to be a state of disease, wherein the two 





FALSE QUARTER, OR A DEFICIENCY OP 
THE OUTER WALL. 




THE ONLY POSSIBLE RELIEF FOR 
FALSE QUARTER. 




SECTION OF A HORSE 3 FOOT AFFECTED WITH SEEDY TOE. 



A FOOT WITH SANDCRACK. 



kinds of horn are separated. Such a division is known as a seedy toe 
and as false quarter ; and the foot is recognized as weakened when such 
a want of union is discovered. • The outer, dark-colored horn becomes 
more brittle ; the white, internal horn grows more soft for the want of 
that junction by means of which each communicated its attributes to the 
other. So also when the two descriptions of horn, although united, 
cease to influence one another, pathology acknowledges this condition as 
a morbid alteration, known as a changed state of hoof. Thus, when a 
sandcrack is visible, or the wall divides from the ground surface to the 



100 



SHOEING. 



coronet, the foot's incasement is recognized as unhealthy; but in the 
forge, the application of such facts is, by most smiths, utterly ignored. 

The untutored Arab, however, takes advantage of the united proper- 
ties of the horn. In warm countries the horse's hoof grows strong and 
thick. The uninstructed Asiatic allows the wall to descend half an inch 
below the sole, and right through the entire of this portion of projecting 
hoof he drives the nails which secure the shoe. Proceeding thus, he 
does not injure the foot by the insertion of foreign bodies through its 
more brittle substance, while he secures the united resistance and tough 
qualities of the complex covering of the foot. 




THE MODE OP FASTENING THE ARABIAN 
SHOE TO THE HOOF OF THE HORSE. 




FKiCTURED CONDITION OF THE HORN, CONSE- 
QUENT UPON DRIVING NAILS THROUGH THE 
BRITTLE OUTER CRUST OF THE WALL. 



The English smith, on the contrary, by ranging the holes for the fas- 
tenings round the edge of the shoe, drives the nails only into the harder 
kind of horn, and transfixes the crust for a considerable distance. The 
English shoeing nail is meant to pierce only the black or outward sub- 
stance of the wall. This may, seemingly, afford the better hold ; but it 
also offers the more dangerous dependence. There is, likewise, the peril 
to be braved of pricking the sensitive foot, should the nail turn a little 
to one side — an accident which not unfrequently happens. There is, 
moreover, another danger, namely, that whieh the forge calls driving a 
nail "too fine;" that is, forcing it near the white horn rather than send- 
ing it directly through the center of the narrow dark crust. There re- 
mains to be enumerated a third peril. Horses, with thin walls, present 
difficulties to the shoeing smith. He is afraid of either pricking the foot 
or driving the nail "too fine;" should the last accident ensue, the nail 
will, upon the animal being worked, bulge inward, will provoke acute 
lameness, often causing pus to be generated. To avoid these evils, he 
points his nails outward ; and, by so doing, not unseldom induces the 
harsh outer crust to crack, to split up, or to chip off. To such an extent 



SHOEING. 



101 



does this sometimes happen, that the smith is occasionally puzzled to 
find the place where a nail will hold. 

It is a common thing to hear veterinary surgeons, throughout the 
length and breadth of the land, attribute to the operation of shoeing all 
the evils by which the hoof is affected. They generally assert that a 
colt invariably has an open, healthy foot, until it is shod ; but, from the 
day upon which the animal enters the forge, the horn begins to be 
irregularly secreted, and the hoof to grow misshapen ; while horsemen 
have a well-known saying, that " one horse could wear out four pair of 
feet." 

Every rider knows how vexatious it is for a horse to fling a shoe. 
Every horseman appreciates the consequence of walking his steed, even 
one mile, along the common road, to gain the nearest forge, where the 
loss may be made good. Such an accident were an impossibility, if the 
nails were firm. There is alwa3^s danger, as they are at present fixed, 
of these fastenings breaking away from the substance of the hoof; yet 
no one has hitherto ventured to question the existing method of shoeing 
prevalent throughout Europe. 

But the worst evil which results from a shoe becoming partially re- 
leased, is neither the inconvenience it 
occasions the rider, nor fracture, often 
produced, on the hoof of the animal. 
Some portion of the horn first yields. 
This mishap throws greater stress upon 
the remaining fastenings. The shoe be- 
comes loose. The majority of the nails 
give way, but one may continue firm. 
This is the greatest peril. The shoe is 
fastened as by a pivot, and with every 
step swings from side to side. The re- 
leased nails stick upward — the earth or 
roadway, as well as the clinches, pre- 
venting these from leaving their places. 
When the foot is in the air, the shoe 
hangs pendulous. When the foot is 

placed upon the ground, it may be impaled upon the nails that j^rotrude 
upAvard. Many steps are seldom taken without such a result. The 
shoe gets under the foot. The blunt and jagged points are, by the huge 
weight of the quadruped, forced through the soft sole or frog at the bot- 
tom of the hoof; a dangerous wound is inflicted, the uneven metal being 
often driven for some distance into the body of the coffin-bone. 

Against the Arabian method of driving the nails, it may be advanced 




THE SHOE PARTIALLY BREAKS FROM THE 
INSECURE FASTENINGS, AND ONE OF 
THE NAILS, STICKING UP, PIERCES THE 
SOLE OF THE FOOT. 



102 



SHOEING. 



that if the equine hoof is permitted to grow, the elongation of the horn 
at the toe and its non-removal by the knife would occasion this portion 
of the foot to protrude, and ultimately curl upward like a Turkish slip- 
per. — such being the result of long-continued neglect, as is exemplified 
in the feet of too many donkeys. 





THE NEGLECTED AND LONG UNSHOD HOOF OF AN ASS. 



ENGLISQ MODE OF PARING THE HORSE'S 
UOOF. 



It is not proposed to subject the horse's foot to anything like the 
usage to which the hoof of the ass is habitually exi^osed. All the writer 
contemplates is moderating the smith's employment of the drawing- 
knife and of the rasp, enforcing some caution in the application of the 
red-hot iron, when burning a seat for the shoe. Why need the wall be 
always cut away till it is level with the horny sole ? Why bring this 
last portion of the pedal covering, which is naturally soft and yielding, 
on a line with that part of the crust which is imbued with a power of 
resistance ? Nay, the harder wall is protected by the shoe on which it 
rests; while the softer sole is brought near to the ground, being left 
exposed to an injury, which the lesion known as bruise of the sole proves 
not unfrequently to happen. 

The sole, being exposed thus close to the earth, is the fruitful source 
of several "accidents." The soft horn of this region being brought so 
low, is rendered constantly wet. The consequence is a harshness of 
texture, perfectly opposed to the evident intent of nature. This harsh- 
ness is one of the most common sources of corns. The edge of the sole 
rests upon 'the web of the shoe — the descent of the coffin-bonej being 
unable to play upon a yielding sole, squeezes the flesh between the in- 
ferior surface of the bone and the upper surface of the shoe. This is 
acknowledged as the principal source of corns. Stones and other rub- 
bish often become impacted between the horny sole and the shoe. In 
this situation, the foreign substances are retained so firmly and provoke 
such acute lameness that it is common for all stable-men to keep by 
them, as well as it is general for most horsemen to carry, a curved tool 



SHOEING. 103 

denominated "a picker." Such annoyances, with many others, might 
be easily avoided, could the English smith only be prevailed upon not 
to pare the sole so thin that blood bedews its surface, and then to make 
the level of the diminished part the point whereto the crust is to be 
lowered. 

Another probable consequence, attending the customary cutting away 
of the horse's sole, has not been sufficiently considered. 

The shape of this part, its yielding character, and its position imme- 
diately under the coffin-bone, all should be accepted as proofs that it is 
of service in supporting the weight of the body. It proves nothing to 
assert that if the sole is removed, the pedal bone will not fall down. 
The burden may repose upon the numerous laminae and upon the bulg- 
ing rim of the coronet, as well as drag upon the lateral cartilages. Here 
is sufficient material to uphold even a greater load ; but can such a force 
be arbitrarily imposed by human authority without provoking nature's 
resentment ? The parts here named are the very regions which are the 
common seats of foot disease. Ossified cartilages — irregular secretion 
of coronary horn and laminitis, in the acute or in the chronic form — are 
very common to stables ; so also is navicular disease, which the trim- 
ming of the frog is also likely to induce. Horse proprietors, therefore, 
would do well to reflect upon the above possibility, when their property 
is again submitted to the unchecked abuses of the forge. 

Humanity is not pleaded in this case. Human interest alone is urged 
in favor of the plan proposed. Every horse owner knows how common 
it is for the animal to return tender-footed from the forge. Every person 
can appreciate the unpleasant sensation experienced when a nail has 
been pared to the quick. 

Immediate lameness, or violent exhibition of acute disease, is required 
to convince some people that dumb animals feel anything; but a peculi- 
arity displayed in the manner of placing the foot on the earth is, to the 
author's mind, sufficient proof of some painful sensation. In two or 
three days, the newly-exposed horn may resume its protective function, 
and the mode of progressing, by such a time, is generally restored to its 
accustomed soundness. But such is not invariably the case, and, when 
it does happen, the seeds of future disaster may, nevertheless, have been 
sown. Indeed, so conscious are dealers of the injury done to the horse's 
foot by the rasp and the drawing-knife, that, as a rule, they avoid having 
their new stock reshod while these animals remain in their possession. 

To rectify the foregoing evils, the author would humbly propose that 
half an inch of cru.st should be allowed to protrude below a sole of mod- 
erate thickness. That all idea of breadth of shoe affording the slightest 
protection be at once abolished ; because the broad web has been proved, 



104 



SHOEING. 



by the general employment of the picker, rather to afford harbor to hurt- 
ful particles than to protect the sole from injury. That the shoe be made 
only just wide enough to afford bearing to the wall of the hoof, and to 
allow sufficient room for the nail holes to pierce the substance of the 
iron. The crust was designed to sustain the weight of the animal's 
body, and the most ignorant smith would not think of permitting the 
entire burden to bear upon the sole. A space large enough to give 
room for the nails and to provide an ample rest for the wall of the hoof 
is all that can be of use ; and, being so, all additional width only renders 
the shoe of an unnecessary weight. 

The use of the sole is well known to be distinct fi'om directly support- 
ing any portion of the body ; but it may be of all service in upholding 
occasional weight. That other parts receive the primary burden, is 
illustrated in the forge every day — it being an ordinary custom with 
the smith to pare the sole of the foot till it yields readily to pressure 
from the man's thumb, or until blood oozes through every pore of the 
structure. A further proof of this is the custom of removing a portion 
of sole when the animal chances to be bled from the foot ; also, by the 
veterinary surgeon, without hesitation or fear of consequence, taking 
away large pieces of the horn whenever the sole happens to be bruised 
and under-run. The function of the sole is to endue the tread with 
spring and elasticity ; that it may perform its proper office, the removal 
of it from all possibility of hinderance to its freedom of motion becomes 
a necessity. This requirement is best complied with by allowing the 
part to remain so high as anticipates all possibility of its coming in 
contact with either the web of the shoe or the ground. 

Nature makes nothing in vain ; or, in other words, every part which 
she creates has its destined uses. To recog- 
nize such a maxim, and then to employ a 
smith to destroy the horny sole which nature 
provided, is to acknowledge wisdom, but to 
follow ignorance. At all events, putting 
every appeal to higher principles of action on 
one side, let mere cunning or let worldly 
prudence decide the point. The present 
method has been tried, and has lamentably 
failed ; consequently it is proved an annoy- 
ance which countenances any feasible change. 
But those who are prejudiced in favor of 
the usual proceedings may exclaim against 
the annihilation of the web, and talk about 
the need of protecting the sole. The old English shoe (in which the 




ILLUSTRATING HOW LARGE ANT) SMALL 
STONES BECOME IMPACTED BETWEEN 
THE SOLE AND THE WEB OF THE SHOE. 



SHOEING. 105 

web was so broad the horse's foot rested on a flat metallic surface) did 
not defend the sole, else the web would not have been sacrificed. But 
what kind of protection does the present form actually afford ? Why, 
its only use really appears to be that of affording a place of lodgment 
for gravel and for pebbles, or of a medium for the generation of corns. 

Were half an inch of crust allowed to remain, the web and all its 
dangers might be abolished. The weight would thereby be lightened, 
while the tenacity of wet clay would be deprived of any leverage on 
which to act. Two primary requisites toward a good hunting shoe 
would then be obtained. The nail openings also being brought close 
to the inner margin, and the fastenings being driven in a direction slant- 
ing outward, a hold would be taken of both species of horn which unites 
to form the wall of the foot ; and the nails, being firmly clinched upon a 
tough body in lieu of a brittle substance, would be retained with greater 
certainty. The weight of metal required for such a shoe would be de- 
creased, thereby materially lessening the labor of the horse ; while if 
the nails pierced the toe of the crust, a firmer hold would be obtained, 
and the quarters would be left free instead of being fettered, as is un- 
avoidable so long as the present system of nailing is continued. Corns, 
bruise of the sole, brittle hoof, etc. would be avoided, and the dangers 
of the forge no longer perpetuated. Lastly, the comfort of the animal 
being more tenderly considered, the motions of the quadruped would be 
so much the easier, and the more pleasant — man's real interest being 
best consulted by strict attention to the happiness of all the lives which 
serve him, as every form of existence succumbs to protracted suffering. 

The reader, however, may have experienced the deception which com- 
monly attends every novelty in horse shoes. Therefore he may think, 
when the author proposes a return to an old, a 
barbarous, and an exploded form of fastening 
on the horse's shoe, he simply aims at trying 
an experiment with the living property of other 
people. The writer does not propose to con- 
tend against suspicions ; but he produces the 
plan which he advocates, and contrasts it with 
the ordinary method of nailing; when, having 
placed the evidence before his judges, he leaves "^^^ author's proposed mode 

■^ J O 7 Qj. NAILING. 

them to decide on the merits of the adverse 

modes, as regards their likelihood to perform the offices of retaining a 

ring of iron with safety and with advantage upon the foot of a horse. 

According to the above plan, the hold would be much firmer; it 
would embrace the two kinds of horn which nature ordained should 
unite to form the wall of the hoof. The nail would pierce those tough 




loe 



SHOEING. 



and resistant substances which were designed in their unity to support 
the animal's body, instead of being driven perpendicularly into the more 
brittle covering of the foot, thereby dividing the fibers and frequently 
injuring the hoof, by causing large flakes to chip off its protecting 
envelope. 

The present practice of the forge chiefly consists in removing as much 
horn as possible : as if the covering of the foot were not a natural growth, 
sent for a healthful purpose ; or it was the sprouting of disease, which 
it became imperative should be excised. The shoe is dragged off, and 
afterward the punch, the pliers, and the drawing-knife are employed. 

The author does not object to the legitimate use of the last-named 
instrument ; but to its abuse he dissents. As the shoe alone rests upon 
the earth, of course the hoof lacks needful attrition. Therefore, were 
no cutting resorted to, the horn would be prolonged, and the shoe ulti- 
mately afford no protection to the foot, being carried forward by the 
growth ^f the toe. It is not unusual to see the iron, Avhich originally 
was nailed to and encircled the hoof, borne onward by the continued 
development of the horny secretion, in consequence of neglect having 
allowed the shoe to remain on the foot for months. 




THE SHOE, WHEN SUFFERED TO REMAIN UPON THE FOOT FOR TOO LONG A PERIOD, IS CARRIED FORWARD BT 
THE GROWTH OF HORN, AND LEAVES THE HEELS UNPROTECTUD. 

It is well known to physiologists, that the constant removal of any 
natural growth is calculated to result in one of three effects : it may 
stimulate production, causing the willfully-excised material to be secreted 
in unnatural abundance ; or, on the other hand, it may interfere with the 
powers of growth and occasion the material to be withheld altogether; 
else the operation may cause the product to be secreted in a diminished 
quantity. These conditions of hoof are those which the English smith 
most often complains of, little suspecting that he may innocently have 
aggravated the very evil over which he so loudly laments. Weak, shelly 
feet are generally attributed to the colt having been bred upon marshy 
soil. This accepted reason may answer its purpose ; but it does not 
explain why, upon the horse being taken into work, or being carried a 



SHOEING. 



10? 



long distance from the place of its birth, the deficiency should become 
more conspicuous, and the weakness grow more annoying with each 
successive shoeing. Thick, stubborn hoofs are too common to need 
much comment ; but this effect is generally attributed to the lateral 
nailing, which confines the expansion of the quarters. Does not this 
excuse suggest the wisdom of carrying the fastenings to the toe, where 
the greater thickness of the horn would aff'ord better hold to the nails, 
while at the same time the amount of substance would forbid all idea 
of motion ? 





SPECIMENS OF A LOW AND OF A HIGH HEEL. 



In reply to the above suggestion, it may be answered that English 
smiths like to spare the toe of the horse's foot. All the strain of draught 
is thrown upon this part, which must be dug forcibly into the earth 
whenever the load is heavy or is difficult to draw. In fast-trotting 
animals, the toe receives the impetus of the blow when the foot descends 
upon the ground ; therefore, it is urged, the smith has found out by ex- 
perience that no nail should weaken this portion of the hoof The 
answer appears to be final, but, on consideration, it will be found of 
small value. Mr. Woodger, one of the best veterinary surgeons in 
London, informs the writer he prefers to drive nails through the toe of 
the horse's foot. 

In the first place, the different methods of fastening on the shoe have 
to be properly considered. The author proposes a simple puncture 
through all the substance, which, as the opening made is filled with 
metal, can hardly produce weakness in the structure. The smith drives 
the nail perpendicularly, not through the wall of the hoof, but into its 
outward investing envelope, or into a material particularly harsh and 
resentful of interference — thus separating the fibers of the horn, destroy- 
ing its integrity, and, of course, weakening its capability of sustaining 
violence. 



108 



SHOEING. 



But, bearing in mind the foregoing reply, supposed to be urged in 
defense of the estabhshed custom, let it now be asked, does the English 
smith really respect the part, about the integrity of which he appears 
to be so anxious ? How does he act, when he jSts upon the foot of a 
horse a shoe having a clip at the toe ? Does he, then, scrupulously re- 
spect the most forward portion of the hoof? No ! He actually employs 
his drawing-knife to cut away the horn, thus forming a bed or seat 
within which the clip can lie ensconced. Nor is this all ; he turns up 
the heels of the shoe afterward, thus forming a calkin, and actually 
throwing the bearing of the hoof on that portion of the foot which be 
has just denuded of its natural protection. 





A SHOE Vnm A CUP AT THE TOE. 



THE INCISION ■WHICH PEEPARES THE FOOT TO 
RECEIVE THE CLIP. 



Against all objections embodying the cruelty of this mode of proceed- 
ing, it may be responded that the horn is not endowed with sensation ; 
that it can be cut or burned without awakening the slightest feeling ; 
and, therefore, the introduction of the present remark is entirely out of 
place. While listening to such talk, it might be inferred those processes 
which a few people speak of as exciting no feeling, were positively the 
sources of pleasure to the animal. But if shoeing is to the horse so per- 
fectly painless an operation, what makes many of these quadrupeds dread 
its infliction, and refuse to enter the forge ? Is it excess of happiness 
that occasions several of these creatures to resist the offipie of the smith, 
and provokes a few actually to struggle so violently to escape his atten- 
tions as to sacrifice their existences ? Is it any form of ecstasy that 
renders most animals fidgety while being shod, or is it the restlessness 
of perfect bliss which induces nearly all to move about as though they 
were anxious to escape ? 

The horse is naturally docile and obedient. To serve man is its 
destiny, to obey its master is its delight. To please the human savage, 
it deforms a beautiful frame before it is matured ; and, under the im- 



SHOEING/ 109 

pulse of fear, submits to usage which destroys the value of its life. In 
such a creature, which is denied the use of words, actions must be rea- 
sonably construed, if we desire to interpret its emotions. The acquies- 
cence of ages has viewed contortion as the evidence of agony; and 
universal opinion has regarded nervous movements as being indicative 
of fear or of suffering. 

The smith, to quiet timidity, may strike " the brute " with his heavy 
hammer, or with his scarcely lighter pincers. But no severity can 
deprive flesh of its inherent privilege to writhe, when tortured. Fear- 
ful injuries have resulted from the smith's impatience. Every blow, 
however, does not lead to an inquiry; though any animal, having a 
most retentive memory, may on the next occasion shy as it approaches 
the door of the iforge ; or it may ever after, with that strange perversity 
for which thoughtless proprietors are at a loss to account, prove resist- 
ful at the approach of the shoeing smith. Nevertheless, though the 
pantomime of terror should be a language universally comprehended, 
few of those most accustomed to horses can see anything in the nervous 
spasms of the animal but the exhibition of a vice which needs to be re- 
sisted ! Such people will imagine they deserve to be commended when, 
by the exertion of their utmost force, they have ovei-powered the mute 
timidity which was endeavoring to appeal to the sympathy of its heart- 
less superiors. 

Calkins to the shoes of the horse, as at present made, are positive 
abominations. The shoe, in the first instance, is forged too long for the 
foot, when, the extra length of iron being bent downward, a calkin is 
established. Below, the author presents a sketch, made from memory, 
of the highest calkin he ever remembers to have looked upon. It was 
encountered in the country, soon after the breaking up of a severe frost ; 
and, probably, it was intended to coun- 
teract the wear of metal which invariably 
accompanies a frozen condition of the 
highways. It would, however, with a 
change of weather, fail in its intent; for 
the principal wear is then endured by 
the toe of the shoe, and the heel com- 
paratively escapes friction. All such 
things operate according to their height. 
They fling the entire bearing forward, 

where, without any such aid, it must a high calkix. 

strongly press. Although contraction of 

the tendons is mostly confined to cart horses, (and this constrained posi- 
tion of the foot must favor such an affection,) nevertheless the smith 




110 SHOEING. 

may receive it as an unjust accusation when lie is told that high calkins 
are to blame for the spread of such a state of disease. 

The author, probably, has said enough about the evils attendant on 
the present system of shoeing; and, although the subject is far from 
exhausted, he yields to the reader's desire of learning what the writer 
would substitute in the place of that which causes the numerous evils 
he has denounced. The reformer's office is but half performed when the 
bad is exposed. The most difficult part remains to be discharged — that 
of conceiving and of declaring the good which shall fill the void left by 
the necessary destruction of the evil. 

The author is conscious that, after having condemned so much, he has 
placed himself under an obligation to adduce that which he believes to 
be grounded on right principles. When doing this, the mighty question 
of expense is entirely ignored. It is his office to make known the 
remedy ; he has no concern with the cost of its application. Gentlemen, 
however, though exacting the utmost service from the horse, generally 
begrudge the price of the iron which must be ground down while the 
patient quadruped is laboring for its task-master's benefit. With too 
many proprietors the cheapest is the best form of shoe. The temptation 
of saving a few pence frequently sways the judgment in favor of some 
particular article. The welfare and the life of earth's most beautiful 
ornament is, by too many human beings, reduced to a money considera- 
tion. So thoroughly is this fact appreciated that, when a new shoe is 
submitted to the notice of the forge, its chances of success are always 
judged by the charge for which it can be manufactured, apart from the 
merits of the invention. 

There is, however, a custom general in the forge which has been dis- 
carded by other trades. The linen-draper tickets up the goods in which 
he deals ; and, be the customer rich or poor, the price is known to both. 
The smith, however, will charge the tradesman three shillings and six- 
pence, or four shillings, the set, for a horse's shoes ; while the person of 
independent property, or in the upper sphere of life, he makes pay five 
shillings for the self-same article. This rule can be based on no principle 
of fair dealing, and it needs only to be exposed to be immediately over- 
thrown. Yet, even up to the present time, so exploded and so anti- 
quated a rule of trade prevails in the forge, where the addition of an 
extra sixpence is unjustly made to turn the scale of merit. 

However, the author has here nothing to do with such considerations. 
His duty is confined to freely stating his conscientious convictions, and 
to acknowledging the reader as the appointed judge of the soundness or 
unsoundness of his conclusions. Impressed with such a belief, the fol- 
lowing form of shoe is submitted to the public. It is, by the writer, 



SHOEING. 



Ill 



designated "a slipper shoe;" and the appearance of such a protection, 
when fixed upon the foot of a heavy horse, is presented below. 

The principal peculiarity in this shoe is the long strip of metal which 
rises above the upper surface and conceals about three-quarters of an 
inch of the toe. This is not an enlarged kind of clip, but a hollow re- 
ceptacle, which projects above the shoe and covers part of the hoof 
The use will be best understood when stated that it confers the name — 
the slipper shoe. The toe is sheltered within the shallow cavity, and its 
purpose is to afford the stay which the clip imperfectly provides at the 
expense of the horn's destruction. When the fore portion of the foot is 
being dug into the earth, this provision, Avhile it allows the hoof to be 
employed in its integrity, will prevent all the stress being transferred to 
the nails, and thus hinder the clinches being loosened. 




THE FOOT OF A HEAVY ANIMAl, TVITH THE SLIPPER SHOE FIXED ON IT. 



This shoe has no web. It consists of a piece of iron the breadth of 
which is merely sufficient to afford a secure lodgment for the crust. The 
thing possesses true calkins, but their existence does not interfere with 
the level of the upper surface on which the foot rests. The shoe is 
forged of one thickness from toe to heel ; and a portion of metal under 
each quarter being removed, leaves the calkin, which thus only serves to 
maintain the evenness of the bearing. A slipper shoe, adapted for a 
lighter kind of animal than was supposed in the above illustration, and 
not fixed on the foot, is presented on the next page. 

It may possibly be urged that in thus forming the calkin, the author 



112 



SHOEING. 



has weakened the strength of the quarters. Nature has, however, set 
the example, by weakening the horn at the quarters ; nevertheless, by so 
doing she has not destroyed the strength of the hoof. The quarters of 
an old shoe, when removed after six weeks' hard wear, invariably are 
not sensibly diminished in substance, showing that the lessened amount 
of horn communicates small friction to the metal. Besides, the toe is 
supported upon massive iron, while the heels are upheld by blocks of the 
same metal. A law of mechanics instructs us that if the extremities of 
any powerful substance are adequately sustained, the body which bridges 
over the space may be without support. The heels being raised to an 
equal height Avith the toe, the metal left at the quarters, as it is removed 
from attrition, is imagined to be fully equal to the necessities of its posi- 
tion. 




A IIE.VVV tillOE. 




A LIGHT SHOE. — SHOVaNG THE MANNER IN WmCH CALKINS MAT BE FORMED, ■WITHOUT ANT 
INCREASE OF WEIGHT. 

The diagram exhibits the Slipper Shoe, as suited for different breeds of animals ; also shows the 
sameness in both kinds of manufacture. 



Most existing shoes are fullered, or have a hollow space, narrow but 
long, near to the outer margin. Into this empty void or groove the 
heads of the nails are received ; but as the substance in front is ground 
down by wear, of course the duration of the shoe must be shortened in 
proportion to the depth of the fullering. That the reader may fully com- 
prehend the signification of a fullered shoe, on the following page is a 
copy, made from Mr. Goodwin's excellent work on Shoeing, which the 
author can recommend as the fullest, the most explicit, and altogether the 
best book on this topic which was ever written in the English language. 

By inspecting the next illustration, which represents the ground sur- 
face, the reader will perceive an indented void near to the outer margin. 



SHOEING. 



113 



Behind this indentation or fullered cavity the iron gradually slopes away, 
so that the substance which is exposed to wear, and on which the horsp 
must travel, consists of the narrow strip that extends round the outward 
edge of the shoe. 





A SHOE, -WITH THE NAILS COUNTEKSUJfK. 

(Ground surface.) 



A FULLERED SHOE. 

(Ground surface.) 



The author's proposed shoe contemplates iron of an equal thickness at 
every point which is usually exposed to wear. The nails are driven into 




DIAGRAMS, SHOWINa THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FULLERING AND COU.NTERSINKING, FOR RECEIVING THE 
NAIL HEAD OF A HORSE'S SHOE. 



Fullering, or a free indentation round the shoe. 
This space is indicated by the dark portion 
of the diagram, and within which the heads 
of the nails repose. 



Countersinking, or only removing so much 
metal as may be filled up by the heads of 
the nails which are to retain the shoe 
upon the horse's foot. 



holes made to fit close around the heads of those fastenings, so that the 
shoe being fixed, no loss of substance is to be detected ; for the nail heads 
fill the spaces which were countersunk for their admission. 

The nails pierce the toe of the proposed new shoe. This part is 
selected, because this portion of hoof is covered with the thicker horn : 
therefore is indicated as the region where all stress should bear. The 
author is aware that, among smiths, there is a strong objection to driv- 
ing nails in the center of the wall. Yet it seems to the writer that a 
more violent outrage is inflicted by actually removing a portion of its 
substance, so as to make an abiding place for a clip, than by piercing 
obliquely the strongest part of the hoof, subsequent to the toe having 
grown below the true foot. 

The thickness of wall there offers several advantages, when consider- 
ing the retention of nails. The solidity of the secretion is a proof that 
this portion of the hoof is not endowed with motion. Consequently, 
when fastening a piece of iron to it, we are not fearful of interfering 



lU SHOEING. 

with the exercise of a healthful function. Such would be the case if 
the nails were to fix the quarters, where the joint thinness, moisture, 
and elasticity of the horn afford the best evidence nature meant should 
reside expansion and contraction. 

When the contents of the foot are compressed by the superimposed 
weight of the animal, or when the hoof is resting upon the ground, the 
quarters yield to the downward pressure, and they accordingly expand. 
When the burden is removed by the hoof being raised, the quarters 
again fly back to their original situations. The sides, therefore, being 
in constant motion, are entirely unsuited for the purposes to which the 
smith compels them. No wonder the clinches are loosened, or the shoes 
come off, when the nails are driven into parts hardly ever at rest ; this 
action is important to the circulation, for the contraction still allows the 
arterial blood free ingress, while the expansion permits the full return 
of the venous current. 

Therefore, because the thickness of horn denies the possibility of 
movement ; because the amount of inorganic secretion likewise pre- 
sents a reasonable hope of not injuring other and more delicate struc- 
tures; and because the toe affords those numerous properties which, 
for the retention of the fastenings are rendered imperative, the nails, 
in opposition to the usage of ages and the experience of thousands, are 
fixed within the anterior of the hoof — seven or five being there employed 
to fix the shoe. 

There is another quality appertaining to the proposed shoe which 
may be briefly touched upon. The thing is equally applicable to the 
field or to the road. For hunting purposes, it is superior to any modern 
shoe. It possesses no unnecessary surface, being absolutely without 
web, and is lighter for the absence of so useless a provision. It is also 
fixed more firmly upon the foot, being the better able to withstand the 
drag, always present, when riding in winter over stiff clays. Moreover, 
it does not fetter the quarters of the hoof or necessitate vast removal 
of the sole ; consequently it leaves the pliable horn to aid the spring, 
thereby allowing the horse the full exercise of its natural power. 

This reference to one kind of sport, naturally calls to mind another 
form of amusement in which the horse is a principal performer. Thor- 
ough-breds, before they start for the race, are shod in very light, but in 
equally thin shoes, of which the appended example may convey some 
idea. Now, thinness and lightness, where metal is concerned, are attain- 
able only by the sacrifice of strength. The sad accidents which have 
occurred through using the present racing plates, and by these being 
broken, bent, or twisted, during the violence of the contention, ought to 
provoke their abolition. 



SHOEING. 



115 



Such accidents are, however, fortunately more rare than the substance 
of the shoe might lead most readers to suppose. Nevertheless, a greater 
injury is consummated by affixing a fetter, which prevents the elasticity 
of the quarters aiding the exertions of the animal, while, from its dimen- 
sion, it can afford but little protection to the foot. How much the speed 
of the racer must be dependent upon that elasticity with which the quar- 
ters are endowed, may be judged of by any person who has ever visited 
a race-course and beheld the horses trot previous to the start. Who can 
have failed to notice the play of fetlock by which "the blood action" is 
characterized ? Now, nature never forms one part an exception to the 





AM OLD AND A MODERN RACING PLATE. 



whole. She delights in harmony; consequently the spring which resides 
in the fetlock is positive evidence of the elasticity which belongs to the 
unfettered foot. But the bounding property, which the frog, sole, and 
quarters would naturally provide, the trainer counteracts, in order to im- 
pose a dangerous article, which is not a horse shoe, nor even a respectable 
substitute for one. 

It is so formed, however, as to exercise the 
worst functions of the regular shoe. It is a 
fetter upon the foot, and firmly impales the 
quarters, thereby seriously crippling the animal 
and impeding the natural power. If any part 
of a thorough-brcd's foot required metallic pro- 
tection, it could only be the toe ; for this part 
alone is employed during the horse's quickest 
pace. The other portions of the hoof touch 
the ground, when aiding the spring; but these 
are never used with that amount of energy 
which necessitates anything approaching arti- 
ficial defense. Now, the plate and its nails 
check expansion ; these also oppose that force of rebound residing in the 
hoof and in its various structures. The best horse must feel the bondage 




A TIP OR HALF SHOE NAILED O.NLT 
TO THE TOE, AND LEAVING BOTH 
THE QDARTERS FREE. 



116 SHOEING. 

most. The spring or rebound is to it of most value. But that function 
is destroyed. Many a fine animal has, doubtless, been condemned for 
having "no go in him," which, could it have exerted all its natural 
power, would have been declared winner of every race for which it was 
ever entered. 

The late William Percivall, the respected author of Hippo-pathology, 
many years ago informed the author that he had long ridden a young 
horse about town with no greater protection to its forefeet than tips 
could aflbrd. He showed the hoofs of the animal to the writer, and 
more open or better examples of the healthy horse's feet need not be de- 
sired. Why could not tips be employed by racers, instead of the present 
ridiculous pretense at a shoe ? If any greater protection is imperative, 
or is thought to be needed, the shoe proposed by the author would give 
all security, while it left the pedal structures free to exercise their import- 
ant uses. There can be no doubt as to the safety of tips ; in which, if 
Mr. Percivall could for years take his quadruped through the streets of 
Loudon, another animal might, surely, scamper over the well-kept turf 
of a race-course, where the heels merely touch the earth during the 
intervals of leaps, and then only for an instant. 

Were tips more generally employed, this form of shoe would be more 
highly valued. They are, however, now thought only to be of service 
when the animal is, "for a season," thrown up; but there can be no 
reason why the racer — trained, exercised, and worked always on choice 

turf — should ever be crippled by any more 
regular form of shoe. Most horsemen, how- 
ever, like the warriors of old, place their great 
dependence on the accumulation of iron. The 
nearest approach they ever make toward a tip, 
and then only when guarded by a veterinary 
surgeon's advice, is a three-quarter shoe. The 
tip is a protection to be worn only during the 
run at grass, and to be discarded so soon as 
the stable is entered. Is not the racer always 
A THREE- QiARTKu SHOE, ^HicH ^t grass, siucB thc Tail Or the van generally 
ONLY LEAVES ONE-QUARTER UN- carrics It ovor the roads ? How often do the 

FETTERED. 

feet of the thorough-bred fail, though there 
must be further cause than the work they have undergone ? But no one 
is silly enough to suspect the shoeing can be at fault ! 

The three-quarter shoe is but an enlarged kind of tip. Most horsemen 
appreciate the unilateral nailing, which was revived some years ago by 
that excellent veterinary surgeon, Mr. Turner, of Regent Street. They 
can understand the advantages of leaving one-quarter without nails so 




SHOEING. in 

long as the unfettered part be covered by a regular shoe. They com- 
prehend that by omitting the nails on one side of the hoof, that side is 
left free to exercise its natural property of expansion. Therefore they 
perceive that the unilateral mode of shoeing is a partial remedy for 
contraction. 

Though always worked on grass, and ever lightly shod, no animal ia 
BO troubled with mule hoofs as is the racer; yet no quadruped is so en- 
tirely under the inspection of man. The mode of shoeing must be at 
fault. That cannot be right the results from which are purely evil. 
The consequences experienced from the custom of fettering that portion 
of the foot on which the pleasure of motion and the extent of the re- 
bound both depend, argue strongly in favor of tips, not onh^ as training, 
but more especially as running shoes. Men with fleshy feet, having no 
protection from leather, fearlessly tread the race-course ; yet the owners 
of blood stock seem afraid of trusting their animals to perform an act 
not equally bold — although nature sends the horse into the world with 
ready-made and stout-made shoes. There can be no just reason why 
the steed which never quits the turf need be hampered even with a 
unilateral shoe, were the horn only carefully, and not ruthlessly, cut 
away. 




A SEATED AND A UMLATERAL SHOE. 



A seated shoe implies a regular shoe, which has only so much upper 
surface left as will admit of the crust resting upon it. The remainder 
of the web slants away, till the posterior or inner margin becomes a 
comparatively fine edge. Such a make of shoe may lessen the weight, 
but it can afford no protection ; while it offers a snug lodging for stones 
or grit, and presents an extended surface for the huntsman's dreaded 
heavy clay to act upon. Yet, for the sake of its prettiness, the seated 
shoe is all but universally adopted. No other form is so largely patron- 
ized by what should be the informed class of society. 



118 



SHOEING. 




ME. BRACT CLAKK'S JOINTED SHOE. 



Mr. Bracy Clark once brought forward a jointed slioe, which was 
intended to admit of expansion; and was offered to the public as a 
radical cure for all the evils to which the foot of the horse was liable. 

The joint was placed at the toe, the shoe 
being forged in two halves, which were 
united by means of a rivet. The thing 
was wrong in principle. The toe, which 
nature intended should be fixed, was obliged 
to move, before the heels could expand; 
then, parts could not yield in different 
degrees, but all must move at once, accord- 
ing to the motion of the iron. It was soon 
discovered to be terribly injurious, when 
brought into use. The battering speedily 
fixed the central rivet, and afterward wore 
away the joint, leaving the two halves disunited. A thing which turns 
out defective, both in principle and in practice, merits that neglect into 
which the jointed shoe has now fallen. 

Another mechanical ameliorator was termed the screw shoe. This 
had two rivets — one on either side of the toe, 
operating on two movable quarter pieces. The 
sides, therefore, were capable of all motion, and, 
being nailed to the quarters, were, by turning 
the screw, to be forced outward. The screw 
was situated under the frog, and was retained 
in its position by a stout bar of iron connected 
with the toe piece. Man, however, cannot treat 
any portion of an organic fi-ame as it were an 
inorganic substance. He may tear flesh, but he 
cannot stretch or strain living tissues according to his pleasure. More- 
over, all outward secretions are regulated by the parts which thej cover 
and inclose. Thus, supposing a lad born with a diminutive head, the 
ci'anium cannot be enlarged by any degree of force; but educate the 
boy, exercise the intellect of the youth, and, with the greater develop- 
ment of the brain, the bones of the head will sensibly expand. So it 
must be with the heels of the horse's feet. These parts may become 
rigid and wired in by the fixing power exercised by the nails of the 
shoe. But remove the nails, allow the hoof that motion which is need- 
ful to its health, and its internal structures may recover their lost func- 
tions ; a gradual restoration to the normal shape may be the consequence 
of strength regained by the internal organs. 

The veterinary mind was, however, slow to recognize so plain a rule. 




A SCREW SHOE. 



\ 



SHOEING. 119 

Like all nature's laws, the truth necessitated not that show of mastery 
in which the ignorant especially delight. The famous screw shoe is 
everywhere admitted to have been a decided failure; nevertheless, the 
pride of poor humanity could not relinquish the hope of compelling life, 
through the power, to direct mechanical force. Screws and rivets had 
proved alike hurtful, but there still remained other artifices, which were 
as yet untried. The frog-pressure shoe was one of these, which ultimately 
lamed many horses, without having benefited a single one. The wedge- 
heeled shoe is, however, occasionally encountered, even at the present 
day. It consists of a shoe, imperfectly seated upon its upper surface, 
and which has the heels much thicker or higher than the toe. The iron, 
at the inside heel, is beaten into an angular form, the apex of the angle 
looking toward the foot. The intention is, that the heel, resting upon 
a slanting surface, should slide downward and outward, thus being 
forced gradually to expand. The shoe may be said, up to a particular 
point, to answer the inventor's expectations. The hoof certainly does 
slide downward and outward ; only, when this is accomplished, the wall 
has been torn from its attachments, while the apex of the wedge, coming 
into contact with the soft sole, has actually forced its way through the 
horn covering the last-named part, thereby lamentably laming the poor 
horse. Could the teaching of principle have been interpreted, so sad a 
result might have been understood without positively experimenting 
with breathing life. 




A ■WEDQE-UEELED SHOE. 



But pride has no brains, and a very limited degree of feeling. A 
modification of the above shoe is still to be met in the London shops. 
The nail holes are principally at the toe, one only being inserted at the 
most forward part of each quarter. The author's proposed plan of fas- 
tening the shoe is, therefore, no positive novelty; since the smith, before 




A THIN-HEELEP SnOK. 



120 SHOEING. 

now, has impaled the toe of the foot. A return to perfect freedom, how- 
ever, could alone cure the evils caused by un- 
natural restraint. The wedge heel pointed the 
toe toward the earth ; injured the bars and the 
sole ; often causing large portions of the coflSn- 
bone to exfoUate. Seeing the plan did not 
answer, the next inventor lowered the heels and 
raised the forward part, this thing being named 
a "thin-heeled shoe." However, one extreme 
could not heal the wounds provoked by another ; 
and the position of the hoof, which the pavement of the stalls enforces 
while the horse is in the stable, the thin-heeled shoe perpetuated when- 
ever the animal was taken abroad. Ceaseless discomfort can advantage 
no form of existence. 

The last shoe, moreover, besides being thin at the heels, also dis- 
played a mild desire to retain the feature of the wedge. This was done 
without the inventor suspecting that, when he fixed the quarters of the 
hoof at a high altitude, and invited the heels to slide down an inclined 
plane, he was only laying a trap for loosening the clinches; since, the 
quarters and the heels being continuous, one cannot move without the 
other being displaced. 

All men having, theoretically, insisted on the necessity of permitted 
freedom of motion to the quarters, in order to secure the health of the 
foot, the next novelty was a proposition to confine those parts, by estab- 
lishing a large clip at either side of the shoe. 
The clips were forged ; but the thin heels were 
also retained. The highest portion being at 
the toe, of course the foot, obeying the laws of 
gravity, had an inclination to drag toward the 
lower level — thus the thin heels had a tendency 
to draw the hoof away from the clips, one part 
counteracting the other. Then, the clip shoe 
CUP s>uoE. j^^g ^ piece of steel inserted at the toe ; but 

could an everlasting horse shoe be produced, it would bring but small 
gain to the proprietor ; since the natural growth of the horn necessitates 
that the metal should be removed, that new nails should be inserted, and 
that the foot should be pared out every third week. However, the steel 
toe and the thin heels were incompatible with each other; since the thin 
heels took the bearing from that part which the steel presupposes to be 
alone liable to attrition. 

It would, however, be vain to review all the shoes which have come 
before the public. A certain rim of iron has been pinched up, flattened 




SHOEING. 121 

out, squeezed in, twisted about, has been lengthened and has been 
shortened, subjected to every species of treatment but the right; and 
each trivial alteration has been patented to the public as a final and a 
wonderful improvement. After all the many changes, at the present 
time a modification of the shoe originally introduced by Clark, of Edin- 
burgh, is in general use, or, if such an assertion requires any qualifica- 
tion, the hospital shoes, or shoes suited for particular forms of disease, 
are the principal exceptions. 

The generality of grooms will undertake the relief of those injuries 
occasioned during motion, or which are produced by one leg being hit 
by the opposite foot. 

Of cutting there are two descriptions. One is spoken of as "brush- 
ing," and this kind occurs near to the pastern joint. The other is called 
"speedy-cut," and it takes place immediately below the knee. Both 
are equally annoying; but the last is the most dangerous. "Speedy- 
cut" will destroy the rider's security in his horse ; for a blow on the seat 
of injury may bring the animal suddenly to earth. Both affections are 
likely to occasion exostosis ; for the repeated injury may so irritate the 
bone as shall cause it to enlarge or tumefy. Thus, the renewal of the 
accident produces a result which must increase the probability of its 
recurrence. 

Almost all weakly, long-legged, and narrow-chested horses cut. 
Creatures with cow hocks are said to be exposed to this calamity. 
Many young horses strike in going; but they lose the habit as age 
matures the strength. Nearly all animals, when exhausted, will 
"brush," and often very severely. Lately, a ring of Ihdia-rubber 
has been employed as a protection against this annoyance; but it is 
a mere fantasy, and one not at all calculated to realize any practical 
expectation. Confirmed disappointment engenders a feeling allied to 
desperation ; but when nostrums fail, advice should then be sought 
from more lofty counselors. 

The speedy-cut has already been alluded to in the Illustrated Horse 
Doctor; but in that volume no mention was made of what is ordinarily 
implied by "brushing," which is confined principally to the hind extrem- 
ities. It is astonishing how great may be the annoyance which a mat- 
ter apparently so trivial will occasion ; and it is a legitimate source of 
surprise how deep the wound can be, or how lasting the blemish, pro- 
duced by slight blows, frequently becomes. The groom may exhaust 
his stock of remedies, and the master may expend some money and 
much patience, watching for a cure which is never effected. 

Let the defeated proprietor then apply to some practical veterinary 
surgeon, who will inform him of the real cause of the injury which has 



122 



SHOEING. 



already been intimated. Some horses will only cut during the latter 
portion of a long journey, or when thoroughly exhausted. Other 
quadrupeds are afflicted with a chronic description of weakness, and 
such animals may cut with the first step. These creatures require less 
work or entire rest, with a course of tonics, both in food and medicine. 
However, make and shape certainly have some control over this affec- 
tion. The horse which exhibits a 
wide chest, and stands with the feet 
not too close together, very rarely 
speedy-cuts. The animal which pos- 
sesses well-made haunches with prom- 
inent hips and swelling thighs, that 
appear full, round, and fleshy, espe- 
cially when such a creature places 
the fetlocks under the hocks, must be 
driven very far and pushed very hard 
before the pace shall become injuri- 
ous. 

Several repeated remedies have 
been sold for the relief of this de- 
fect. Saddlers keep in stock pieces 
of leather, or small flaps with straps 
appended, which last, being buckled 
round the leg, hang pendulous, cover- 
ing the wound. Such applications, however, rarely are satisfactory. 
The horse, during the motion of the feet, repeatedly kicks the leather, 




THE KIND OF HORSE NOT LIKELY TO CUT. 




REMEDIES FOR CUTTING. 



and the frequent blows generally remove it from its original situation ; 
thus, long before the journey has ended, the remedy hangs over some 
sound part of the leg, and the sore is bleeding from renewed injury. 



SHOEING. 



123 



A better plan is to procure a piece of cloth which matches the color 
of the animal, and to fold this round the leg, ultimately tying it at the 
top and the bottom. Such a contrivance cannot be displaced, and is less 
likely to attract attention than the leathern flap recently alluded to. 
However, it must be tightly wrapped round the shin or it will bag and 
appear unsightly, as it is represented in the previous illustration. Still, 
such a resort aflbrds but a partial protection, cloth being unable to stay 
the entire consequences of a blow ; nor can it be regarded as exercising 
a curative influence. 

That which appears better is a leathern boot, of the color of the skin, 
or made of prepared horse skin, 
having the hair on, and laced upon 
the member. Over the seat of in- 
jury a concave piece of stout leather 
is let into the covering, and the hol- 
low thus formed, which acts as a 
protection, can also receive a por- 
tion of lint saturated in the lotion, 
prepared by adding one grain of 
chloride of zinc to an ounce of water. 
Thus, while the sore is spared a re- 
newal of the cause, curative treat- 
ment is not stayed. 

The chloride of zinc lotion is the 
only remedy which an ordinary case 
of cutting would require ; but aggravated instances of this annoyance 
will also be benefited by rest and a course of restoratives to amend the 
constitutional debility. Other matters consist in a warm lodging, an 
ample bed, prepared food, walking exercise, a loose box, and, above all 
things, no work. Should the animal be changing its coat, which is gen- 
erally a period of weakness, throw it up till the operation is completed ; 
give extra nourishment and one ounce of liquor arsenicalis, each day, to 
assist nature. Never turn out to grass ; for numerous are the examples 
of flagging quadrupeds which, after the supposed invigoration of a 
month's "run," have been taken up in a condition which disabled them 
for labor ever afterward. 

Such an animal should enjoy the very best of softened food — beans in 
excess — and should be retained at the homestead. It should be hand- 
led, not ridden, to exercise, of which it can hardly have too much, pro- 
vided the motion does not excite perspiration or cause evident fatigue, 
neither of which states is desirable. Should the horse sweat in the 
stable, remove all clothing, open the door, and pour over the body several 




A LEATHERN BOOT. 



124 



SHOEING. 



pails of the coldest water — having a helper ready to dry the saturated 
coat with all speed ; then, putting on a bridle, send the animal out for 
one hour's brisk walking exercise. Order the man who holds the rein to 



ll&it^ 'iiSi'^i I 




THE EIGHT AND THE 'WRONG WAT OF ■WALKING A GENTLEMAN S HORSE. 



walk at the rate of four miles an hour. An active quadruped can travel 
much faster, so there can be no excuse, beyond the indulgence of his 
individual laziness, for the servant creeping along, while the animal 
hangs the head as though it had some intention of laying down. 

Much injury is done every year by the indolent manner in which idle 
lads "walk horses." The urchins who infest the streets of London dis- 
play nimbleness while they run by the side of an equestrian, shouting out 
occasionally, "Hold your honor's horse?" No sooner, however, have 
they received orders to walk the quadruped about, than all their activity 
departs ; they creep along at a pace which only just renders it impossi- 
ble to charge them with standing positively stationary. The horse may 
be warm, and the master may desire to prevent the body from chilling 
while he is detained by business. A ready affirmative testifies that the 
command to move briskly has been comprehended ; but who ever beheld 
one of these youthful idlers, when in possession of a job, stirring even 
at the pace of a lady's ordinary walk ? 

However, to return to the subject which at present is more especially 
under the reader's consideration. Gutting is often combined with click- 
ing or forging, for both words signify the same act, implying the noise 




SHOEING. 125 

made by striking tlie toe or quarter of the hind shoe against the metal 
nailed to the forefoot. This sound is not generally considered pleasant 
by those who hear it; because, besides being of a monotonous character, 
it announces something to be the matter — 
cither that the horse is not exactly in proper 
working condition, or that the journey has 
been a trifle too long for the strength of the 
animal, while the repeated blows endanger 
the retention of a fore shoe. 

The smith generally is consulted to cure 
this defect. He, however, who regards the 
cause, will perceive that the eradication of 
the evil more concerns the stable than the 
forge. The man of the anvil, nevertheless, 
will put on a novel kind of shoe which, with ^''°!'^:^f'''^l^,Z'Ii!^,J^lZlll' 

I ' TION OF ERADICATING CUTTING, 

all the confidence of ignorance, he shall assert ^^^ '"' rendering clicking an 

° ' impossibility. 

must stay the annoyance. The remedy totally 

fails, and the horse is led to another forge. The new blacksmith picks 
up the foot, and, of course, is cunning enough to profit by what he there 
perceives. A different shoe is tried and pronounced an absolute remedy. 
Still, this disfippoints ; the quadruped seeks some other shoemaker. The 
next bit of iron leads to no new result. The clicking and the cutting 
only get worse during these numerous trials ; till the proprietor becomes 
alarmed, and the horse is thrown up to undergo regular curative treat- 
ment. 

The rest thus obtained often effects that which no change of shoe 
could accomplish. The smiths, however, are only to be blamed for pre- 
tending to perform impossibilities. The best veterinary surgeons in the 
kingdom having no better appliances, could have labored to no better 
result; the fact being that the kind of shoe which shall answer in all 
such cases, does not and cannot exist. That article has the best chance 
which is adopted when the owner deems it necessary to lighten the work 
of his exhausted servant. Thus, it is a matter of uncertainty which shoe 
will succeed. The first smith may, or perhaps the last will, prove the 
very clever tradesman in his employers' estimation. 

The next engraving is a type of the shoe commonly employed for the 
alleviation of this unpleasantness. The number of altered shapes and 
adapted pecuUarities is infinite; but one pervading model is readily de- 
tected through all such modifications. There are, however, several shoes 
claimed as inventions by different smiths, and each is warranted to cure 
the most aggravated case of cutting or of clicking on the first applica- 
tion. The author has known many of these to fail ; while the ordinary 



126 SHOEING. 

shoe often answers admirably, so the horse be "up" to his work, and not 
pushed too far or too hard. 

The fact being, that flesh and blood, if overtasked, will flag, and no 

mechanical contrivance can anticipate the natural consequences of such 

exhaustion. Clicking and cutting are not local 

ailments; therefore, though they may be miti- 
gated, they cannot be eradicated by any local 
application. They doubtless are both produced 
by the irregular movement of the feet ; but the 
motion of the extremities is regulated by the 
condition of the body. If the reader is ever on 
a journey, and the horse he is guiding chances 
to click, the bearing-rein should be let down — 
if the driver sit behind harness disgraced by 
sHOE,MKANT^To^PREVENT ^^^^^^ ^^ instrumeut of folly. Should that not 

succeed, accept the warning: pull up at the 
next tavern, and have the quadruped taken from the shafts, rubbed down 
and rested. 

After a couple of hours spent by the traveler in the cofi'ee-room, the 
journey may be resumed, though, of course, a longer stay will rather 
benefit than injure the steed; yet, in either case, the subsequent pace 
should be a little slackened; and if, on reaching home, the work is 
slightly lightened, the noise may never after startle the "ear of pro- 
priety. " 

These remedies should always anticipate the setting in of winter; be- 
cause wet roads necessitate heavier shoes, by which a severer blow can 
be inflicted. Nevertheless, the majority of horse owners are extremely 
careless about the necessities of the seasons. The Avinters, in this 
climate, are more generally characterized by their severity than remarka- 
ble for their mildness; yet the frost appears always to take horse pro- 
prietors by surprise. Gentlemen, to be sure, during this season allow 
their dumb servants to remain within the stable ; but quadrupeds which 
have to work for their own and their masters' sustenance, creatures which 
have to labor long and to labor hard, slaves which toil before the sun has 
risen and never cease till darkness has long set in, are never prepared for 
the season which in England seems a certainty. 

A horse shoe is, however, not a perishable commodity, nor does its 
store necessitate any sacrifice. Supposing it were forged in the summer, 
and because of death or change, it should not suit in the winter, the 
smith, at such a period, would gladly accept its return. Many forges are 
comparatively idle during the warmer months, and any amount of winter 
shoes would be most thankfully manufactured. Then no one will employ 



SHOEING. 



127 



the men ; but scarcely does a severe frost or the snow set in, than people 
throng into the forge, all clamorous to have their horses' shoes suited to 
the weather. Thej crowd the building ; they even stop the roadway. 
The inside is full of men and horses — horses and men cluster deep about 
the entrance. The smiths have to work fast, and often hang over the 
fires for three nights and three days, without looking on a bed. Beer is 
abundant; but nature cannot labor continuously on any amount of 
stimulant, and the men ultimately sink, exhausted, to sleep soundly on a 
heap of old rusty horse shoes, while many voices are shouting and many 
anvils are ringing around them. 




THE BLACKSMITH'S FORGE AT THE COMMENCEMENT OP A HARD FROST. 



Such scenes might be prevented and the work much better done, 
would owners lay in a stock of shoes, properly frosted, against the 
coming winter. The labor executed during the leisure portion of the 
year would not be hastily performed by overtaxed workmen ; the only 
extra charge such a provision would necessitate is the interest on the 
slight cost of the articles supplied : though very often even such an 
increase of expense would be avoided, since it is by no means uncom- 
mon for the smith's account to remain longer than six months before 
it is liquidated ; while the confusion, loss of time, and those accidents 
which often occur, would be banished. 

Frosting or roughing, as it is termed, is generally performed in a 




128 SHOEING. 

coarse and careless manner, because of tbat excessive press of business 
amid which it is executed. In the first place, the shoe is hurriedly torn 
from the hoof, Without the nails being properly unclinched, or any trouble 
being taken about the process. Should the proprietor expostulate, he 
only elicits an uncivil reply ; for the journey- 
man is vexed with boisterous solicitations from 
a crowd of impatient customers, and irritable 
from inordinate fatigue. The shoe is then 
heated ; after which the free extremities are 
turned downward with the hammer, and the 
ends are hastily beaten into a rude, sharp edge. 
In some particular cases, the toe is likewise 
favored by having a clip forged ; but occasion- 
THE SHOE OF THE HORSE AS allv tlic toc Is tumcd dowuward, forming a 

FREQUENTLY JROSTED. i . , in il • rrn • i • i 

thu'd and a front calkm. The article is thus 
rendered too short for the foot, and, with all shape destroyed, is nailed 
on to the hoof from which it was recently removed ; and the animal is 
led from the forge wearing shoes supposed to be properly "frosted." 

The rudeness of the above process has long been appreciated by the 
more reflective portion of the public. To rectify it, various innovations 
have been proposed. The meditated improvements, however, have all 
sank into disuse, because of the attendant expense or of the necessitated 
exertion. A common man thinks it no trouble to remain through the 
night in the blacksmith's forge, waiting for his turn, at an expensive, a 
ruinous, and an inefficient operation, — because other people do the same. 
But when his turn arrives, perhaps a new set of shoes is spoiled ; for the 
ordinary "roughing" is generally of no service after the third day, the 
sharp calkins being by that time ground blunt. 

The huge weight of the animal grinds the edges off the iron, espe- 
cially upon London stones, so that in three days they are no better than 
ordinary calkins, and cease to enable the quadruped to progress on ice. 
The constant removal and renewal of the shoe — the horn each time 
having to be repierced by fresh nails — seriously injures the hoof, so that 
frequently animals are forced to remain idle because there remains no 
more horn on which to fix a fastening. Those horses which escape such 
a fate, nevertheless carry the scars which commemorate the period of 
frost for months afterward; for there is no horseman, who has the most 
trivial experience in such matters, but will bitterly complain of the 
damage done to the quadruped's feet, when it is forced to work through 
the winter season. 

Some person, many years ago, proposed to use nails with large steel 
sharp-pointed heads, during the prevalence of frost. This plan was 



SHOEING. 



129 



tried, and signally failed. The constant renewal of the nails was found 
ruinous to the hoof; for the strongest of the projecting heads was unable 
to resist the grinding action of a horse's foot longer than twenty-four 
hours. Then, many of the heads broke off while being driven, and not 
a few were fixed in a damaged condition, owing to the blows received 
from the heavy hammer of the smith. 





A SHOE, INTENDED TO EXADLE A HOUSE TO WORK 
IN FROST, WHICH IS FIXED ON TO THE FOOT 
WITH SHARP HEADED AND PROJECTING NAILS. 



A SHOE, WITH POINTS, WHICH SCREW ON AND 
OFF, DESIGNED TO FIT A HOBSB FOB WORK 
DURING FROSTY WEATHER. 



Mr. White, however, proposed a plan concerning the utility of which 
Mr. Lupton, a living and a most intelligent writer, bears favorable evi- 
dence. Large holes, containing the thread of a female screw, are made 
through the heels of the winter shoes, and several steel points, manufac- 
tured with a male screw, adapted to the dimensions of the holes just 
mentioned. Whenever frost coats the roads with ice, all that is requisite 
a boy might perform. The hole in the shoe has to be cleared out, and 
afterward, with an instrument known as "a spanner," one of the points, 
before alluded to, is screwed into the opening. When these points are 
worn down, they are easily renewed ; thus the terrors of the frost are 
overcome without exposing the horse for hours to the chilly air, or 
yourself submitting to the incivilities of the forge. 

On the above subject, the following is extracted from the excellent 
weekly newspaper The Field, and is here quoted because of the informa- 
tion it affords, and because of the lucid manner in which it explains the 
measures necessary to be pursued. 

"About this time last season we inserted in The Field an account of 
the plan of frosting horse shoes, recommended more than fifty years ago 
by Mr. White, veterinary surgeon, of Exeter. Since then, nearly one 
thousand sets of the sharp cogs used for this purpose have been sold by 

9 



130 



SHOEING. 



the engineer to whom we intrusted the task of making them ; and the 
plan appears to give unqualified satisfaction. At the suggestion of 
several correspondents who have not seen our former article, we are 
induced to repeat the notice, with the addition of an engraving repre- 
senting the tools necessary; these being a drill of the required size, 
which every smith possesses, and with which a hole is drilled in the 
heel of each shoe, and, if needed, in the toe also. These holes are then 
converted into female screws by means of two taps, (figs. 1 and 2,) one 



flG.4 



FIC. I 




being slightly smaller than the other, so as to make a perfect female 
screw by using first the smaller one and then the larger. Besides these, 
a spanner (fig. 3) is required to fix on the cog firmly; and the cogs 
themselves (fig. 4) should be made by a competent smith. These may 
all be obtained of S. Morris, 50 Rathbone Place, Oxford Street, London, 
the price of the tools being six shillings, and of the cogs, three shillings 
per dozen. With this outlay, any shoeing smith can fit a set of shoes 
by drilling the heels, (and the toes, if the roads are very slippery, but 
for ordinary work the cogs in the heels are quite sufficient,) tapping 
them with the taps furnished to him, after which they are nailed on; 
and the horse so shod can in five minutes be roughed by his groom, by 
screwing a cog in each hole, with the aid of the spanner. It often hap- 
pens that the roads become frozen after a horse leaves home ; but if the 
groom has the spanner and cogs in his pocket, he is independent of the 
smith, and neither the delay caused by 'roughing,' nor the danger from 
its omission, is incurred. A specimen shoe, properly fitted, may be seen 
at the office of The Field.''— December 20, 1861. 

The plan is excellent, but it requires a little forethought and a slight 
expenditure of ready cash. The tools for the tapping, or making the 
female screw holes, and for the points, Mr. Lupton obtains from Bir- 



SHOEING. 



131 



mingham; the former at a cost of five shillings — the last for one penny 
or three half pence each. Tapping a set of shoes is by the smith charged 
fom-pence ; and for so small an outlay the gentleman just named escapes 
the unpleasantness and the annoyance which are inseparable from the 
old method of "roughing" horses during frosty weather. 





A FOOT PROPERLY SHOD, AND A FOOT 'WHICH HAS BEEN CRtlEIXT RASPED, TO MAKE THE HOOF SUIT A 
SHOE THAT WAS TOO SMALL FOR IT. 



The author believes he has now touched upon all the necessary heads 
connected with the subject he is at present considering ; still this article 
cannot be closed without apprising the reader of a practice not unusual 
in some forges, but never indulged in by the respectable tradesman. 
This is, paring and rasping the horse's foot till it be small enough to fit 
the shoe, rather than kindle a fire and forge a new set which shall suit 
the feet of the animal. It may to some readers seem like a jest, to write 
seriously about the horse's shoes being too tight; but it is, indeed, no 
joke to the quadruped which has to move in such articles. The walk is 
strange, as though the poor creature were trying to progress, but could 
obtain no bearing for its tread. The legs are all abroad, and the hoofs 
no sooner touch the ground than they are snatched up again. The head 
is carried high, and the countenance denotes suffering. It is months 
before the horn is restored to its normal condition. The animal must, 
during this period, remain idle in the stable ; and, that the reader may 
be enabled to recognize the foot, under such circumstances, the last illus- 
tration was introduced. 

It is trusted that whoever may possess an animal which is thus 
treated, will, in the first instance, secure the evidence as to fact from 
three or four of the principal veterinary surgeons ; then enforce, with its 
utmost rigor, the law against the individual who has knowingly been 
guilty of this most heartless attempt at a positive fraud. 

The horse is so entirely given into the hands of man, and is so sub- 



132 SHOEING. 

missive to iiis treatment, that the active supervision of its master is 
doubly necessary for its protection. While the present mode of nailing 
is continued, every proprietor willfully exposes his quadruped to danger 
who sends the creature to be shod. Any journeyman may, therefore, 
be pardoned if, occasionally, the foot be pricked ; but the pains and the 
labor required to adjust a hoof to a shoe of small dimensions are abso- 
lute proof of evil design, and are irrefutable testimony which should 
forbid the remotest thought of leniency toward the offender. 



CHAPTER lY. 

THE TEETH — THEHl NATURAL GROWTH, AND THE ABUSES TO WHICH 
THEY ARE LIABLE. 

"'No legs, no horse," is, with a particular class, a very familiar phrase. 
This assertion, becoming a maxim, has apparently directed attention in 
a special manner to the lower extremities. All purchasers are particular 
about the legs and feet of an animal ; but the teeth are merely glanced 
at, to ascertain the age. Such a custom is evidently wrong ; since it 
would be as true of the organs of mastication as it is concerning those 
of locomotion should the horsemen also say, "No teeth, no horse." For 
the creature that is valuable only on account of its labor, cannot be equal 
to its toil if it do not consume a fitting quantity of sustenance. Though 
the majority combine, as it were, to pass the teeth over without notice 
when inspecting the horse, nevertheless many owners seem to appreciate 
the value of these organs to the welfare of the quadruped, it being not 
uncommon to hear horse proprietors complain, "the beast cannot eat 
sufficient for the demand which is daily made upon its capabilities." 

The animal was sent on this earth provided with every apparatus 
necessary to crop, to comminute, and to digest the green verdure of the 
earth. Man has seized on and domesticated the body, w^hich is exqui- 
sitely adapted only for special purposes. He works it while in its 
infancy, or forces it to labor until the sight is lost and the limbs are 
crippled. To fit the creature for his uses, he changes the character of 
its food. Artificially-prepared oats and hay, with various condiments, 
are used to stimulate the spirit. No one inquires whether such a diet is 
the fitting support of the animal. But when the energy lags, beans, 
beer, etc. are resorted to as restoratives for exhaustion. The quadruped, 
thus treated, men have agreed shall be aged by the eighth year ; but the 
author has seen very old horses which had not attained the fifth birth- 
day. Opinion seems to be based upon the circumstance that, by the 
time recognized as "aged" in the equine species, the indications of the 
teeth do no more than tempt a guess. The cessation of dental growth, 
however, does not announce maturity to be consummated; but man 
appeals to the teeth as corroborative of his judgment, without asking 

(133) 



134. TEETH. 

himself whether those parts have been doomed to unnatural wear, and 
therefore may not have assumed an unnatural aspect. 

The author has not lately seen a specimen of bishoped teeth. In 
Ireland, such sights obtrude themselves at every horse fair. The major- 
ity of horses are, in that country, sold cheap, most of the purchasers 
being clothed in rags. It is a sad feature in the practices of imposition, 
that it is always violently rampant where there is the least certainty of 
reward. 

To fully explain in what bishoping consists, it is necessary to inform 
the reader that on the nipping or cutting surfaces of thte young horse's 
front teeth there mostly are dark indentations or deep hollows. Below 
is presented an enlarged engraving of this portion of a tooth, taken from 
the head of that which was a three-year old colt. The dark spot in the 
middle of the diagram represents the situation of the hollow into which 
the food naturally falls, rendering the interior of the cavity of a deep 
color approaching to blackness. Bishoping supposes the cavity always 
to be present ; invariably to be of one form, and in every instance to 
sink to the hke depth, which suppositions are contrary to fact; but even 
were such rules observed by nature, there are still means by which the 
cheat may be detected. Immediately around the dark-colored space is 
developed a fine line of enamel, which is always white. The rogues 
can counterfeit the black mark, but they cannot imitate the crystalline 
white bordering which surrounds the opening. The presence or absence 
of this is of more importance, therefore, than the existence of a black 
indentation. Again, those who tamper with the teeth cannot change 
the shape of the surface on which they work. The young tooth is wide 
from side to side, and narrow from the front to the backward margin. 
He who ventures where bishoped horses are to be found, should familiar- 
ize his eye with the shape of the youthful organ. 





TUK£E TEARS OLD. TWELVE TEARS OLD. 

An enlarged view of the difference in form and in aspect which separates the table of a twelve-year 
old bishoped nipper from the same part in the three year old colt. 

In contrast with the natural tooth, the reader is also presented with 
an exaggerated sketch taken from an organ which had been tampered 
with, and which was extracted from the head of an animal that had at 



TEETH. 



135 



least attained its twelftli year. The natural size has been considerably 
enlarged, as the author thereby hoped to render the contrast the more 
obvious. This last member, it will be remarked, has parted with its 
juvenile width, or is now characterized by depth and angularity. The 
central cavity, it will also be observed, bears small resemblance to the 
natural depression which it is meant to imitate. The color, moreover, 
is quite black, and of an even tint throughout, while the presence of the 
girding line of enamel cannot be detected. 

The difference, however, is more striking, when two full rows of teeth 
are placed in contrast one with the other, after the manner in which they 
are displayed in the next engraving. In the young mouth, the incisors 
are arranged in a gracefully curved line ; the posterior margins of the 
organ present little peculiarity. In the aged teeth, the prominent 
center of these has retracted, while all idea of grace in the order of their 
disposal has departed. Each member in the old jaw evinces an inclina- 
tion to become equally prominent, and the posterior borders evince an 
obvious anscularitv. 




DIAGRAM, SnOWINO TEE TABLES OF A NAIUR.U, KOW OF FITE-TEAR OLD TEETH. 




THE TABLES OP THE BI8H0PED TEETH WHICH BELONG TO AN ANIMAL SIXTEEN TEAKS OLD. 



Then, if the marks in each are examined, the central cavities in the 
bishoped have jagged edges ; while from these indentations arise certain 
eccentric lines, which invariably run toward the circumference. Such 
lines evidently were not made with any design. They were caused 
either by the inaptness of the operator, the coarseness of the tool with 
which he worked, or they were provoked by the natural struggles of the 
animal that was subjected to a merciless operation. The marks, more- 
over, are of a deep-black color; while the lines are remarkable for some- 
times being of a lighter hue than the surface on which they repose. 



136 



TEETH. 



There are, however, other signs which faithfully denote the age of the 
quadruped. The permanent incisors, when first cut, are almost perpen- 
dicular ; but as years accumulate, these organs assume a more horizontal 
direction. The tushes also, when they first appear in the mouth, point 
forward. These members, after a time, become straight; but as age 
progresses, they ultimately lean decidedly outward and at length incline 
backward. Besides these well-marked indications, from the disposition 
of the front nippers to arrange themselves in a line, only two can be seen 
in old quadrupeds Avhen the mouth is viewed from the side ; while the 
membrane covering the gums altogether loses its fleshy hue, becoming 
evidently thick, yellow, loose and baggy. 




,.^ 



THE JAW OP A HORSE WHICH WAS THIRTY TEAKS OF AGE. 



Such marked signs may, by many persons, be esteemed sufficient 
protection ; but there are yet additional characteristics with which all 
who venture to purchase horses of unknown sellers should be acquainted. 
The general indications of senility are strongly impressed both upon 
man and upon horse ; though the teeth are usually appealed to, the 
appearance of the mouth should not be absolutely and solely regarded. 
A white horse is rarely young, any more than a white-haired man is, as 
a rule, in the possession of youth. Then, as the juvenile period ceases, 
absorption begins to operate. Deposit no longer takes place ; but with 
senility a rapid wasting ensues ; both bones and flesh suffer under this 
new action. 

The branches of the colt's lower jaw are wide apart, and in the cavity 
thus formed the tongue reposes. This space is called the "channel." 
The lower margins, also, of the inferior maxillae are in the colt full, 
round, and prominent. When age is present, the edges retract, the 
channel narrows, while the lower margins of the bones appear to the 



TEETH. 



13T 



fingers of the examiner, accustomed to handle young horses, to be posi- 
tively sharp. 




A TOWJG HORSE. AN OLD HORSE. 

ComparatiTe difference in the channels or in the spaces between the branches of the lower jaws. 

When a person having a horse to sell talks boastfully of all "the 
marks" being present in the mouth, avoid him as a suspicious individual. 
Honest men know, or at least all honest men should by this time be aware, 
that there is no dependence to be placed in these so-called "marks ;" ^ere- 
fore they do not strive to direct attention toward fallacious indications. 




SHOWING THE HOKSE'S TEETH. 



By simply parting the lips of the animal, a judge can see everything 
which he cares to behold. The kind of teeth present are easily recog- 
nized ; or when such signs declare the animal to be aged, the position of 
the teeth, the condition of the bones, and the general aspect enable him 
to guess as to a probability. Therefore, when a gentleman requests to 
see the mouth, the horse dealer, unless specially commanded to do so, no 
longer endeavors to tug the jaws asunder, a proceeding which, when 
conducted hastily, is apt to provoke resistance ; but the groom is ordered 
to merely separate the lips, a measure to which most animals will com- 
placently submit. 



138 TEETH. 

Should the person to whom the teeth are exhibited, by an evident 
Ifick of recognition declare his ignorance of their announcement, the 
honest dealer may slyly quiz his patron's want of knowledge; but 
assuredly he will not endeavor to take advantage of it. The author of 
the present volume has found the dealers in horse flesh to be quite as 
honest as, if not more honest than, traders in less perishable commodi- 
ties. There are certain blackguards who profess to be dealers in horses, 
but who have no fixed place of abode or of business. So also there are 
scamps who style themselves traveling jewelers and itinerant book- 
sellers ; but the transactions of neither class of rogues (he whose stock 
in trade consists of a whip, or they whose most valuable possession is 
the mahogany box or the specimen number which is carried from Jiouse 
to house) can be taken as evidence against the more respectable members 
of the calling to which all will assume to belong. A gentleman, igno- 
rant of any acquaintance with jockey-ship, can walk with perfect safety 
into the yard of any respectable dealer; look at the animals which are 
for sale, and walk out again, without encountering any undue solicitation 
to purchase. How many shops are there in London, in which a person, 
equally uninformed, could perform the like manoiuvre ? 

When this is written, it is not meant to imply that a horse dealer 
keeps all his stock open to public inspection. On the contrary, in most 
respectable yards there are certain snuggeries which conceal the more 
choice articles. The pick of these are not even open to every purchaser 
who can pay the price. No ! Horse and picture dealers are alike in one 
characteristic trait : each has a pride in the article he sells. The first 
individual will allow his dinner to grow cold, while he remains gloating 
over the points and beauties of some fresh acquisition. "How it would 
look carrying Her Majesty !" The image amuses his fancy 1 "What a 
spanker to hold a first place in the Beaufort hunt 1" He warms with the 
idea! "What a charger it would make for Cambridge at a Hyde Park 
Review !" He is in ecstasies at the thought ! He cannot possibly decide 
what so much perfection is fit for. He can never consent to treat such 
lovehness as a mere chattel, — a thing to be sold and then to be enveloped 
in obscurity. The animal must not be parted with to any unknown 
individual I The feeling common to his order forbids him to exhibit the 
object of his pride to general inspection. But he might dispose of it, 
even at a sacrifice, were he convinced it would occupy such a position as 
he esteems it is fitted to adorn. He then could point to the animal and 
vaunt that it came from his yard. Honor, fame, and profit must accrue 
to him who could refer to such exalted dealings ; — therefore there is a 
strong sense of self lurking under that which at first glance appears to 
be mere Quixotic denial of self. 



TEETH. 



139 



At the same time, if all respectable dealers are above positive imposi 
tion, it is not every dealer who will prevent a self-conceited novice from 
imposing upon himself. Such a person, acting upon his own judgment. 
may be allowed to purchase the worst screw which some yard contains, 
at the money that should procure a first-rate animal. Even then, the 
dealer has an escape, which every form of worldly honesty will not pro- 
vide. The quadruped, if not approved of, can be exchanged within the 
fortnight following the transaction. To be sure, such exchanges gen- 
erally advantage only one party : but a tradesman must live ; he cannot 
be expected to waste hours showing his stock and chattering with fools 
for no business purpose 1 

However, to protect the reader from every chance of imposition, so 
far as the age of the horse may be concerned, let him attentively accom- 
pany the author through the following pages ; let him also particularly 
notice the engravings with which the text is illustrated. 

A foal at birth has three molars or grinding teeth, just through the 
gums, upon both sides of the upper and of the lower jaws. The little 
animal, however, generally displays no incisors or front teeth ; but the 
gums are inflamed and evidently upon the eve of bursting. The molars 
or grinders are, as yet, unflattened or have not been rendered smooth by 
attrition. The lower jaw, moreover, when the inferior margin is felt, 
appears to be very thick, blunt, and round. 




THE foal's jaw at BIRTH. 



A fortnight has rarely elapsed before the membrane ruptures, and two 
pairs of front, very white teeth begin to appear in the mouth. At first, 
these new members look disproportionately large to their tiny abiding- 
place ; and when contrasted with the reddened gums at their base, they 
have that pretty, pearly aspect which is the common characteristic of 
the milk teeth in most animals. They must occasion pain to the foal at 
this period : the appearance of the little mouth affords sufficient evidence 



140 



TEETH, 



of that fact ; but it is astonishing how meeklj these beautiful creatures 
will submit to our examinations of their teeth, — as though they came 
into the world possessed of all confidence in man's intentions and with 
every dependence upon his sympathy. Some of the diminutive strangers 
seem even to derive pleasure from their irritable gums being inspected. 
They behave almost as though they recognized their future master and 
felt flattered by his notice. Alas ! that brutality should ever repel the 
trustfulness of nature, and that experience should instruct most of our 
mute fellow-beings to regard mankind as enemies. 





THE INaSORS AT TWO 'WEEKS OLD. 



THE INCISORS AT SIX WEEKS OLD. 



It is not until another month has passed, or until the foal is six weeks 
old, that more teeth appear. By that time, much of the swelling present 
on the gums of the newly-born animal has softened down, though all 
trace of it cannot be said to have entirely departed. The membrane, as * 
time progresses, will have to resign much of its scarlet hue. In the brief 
period, however, which has elapsed since the former teeth were gazed at, 
the growth has been such that the sense of very disproportionate size no 
longer remains. The two front teeth are now fully up, and these appear 
almost of proportions suited to the mouth which they adorn. But when 
the two pairs of lateral incisors first make their appearance, it is in such 
a shape as can imply no assurance of their future arm. They resemble 
the corner nippers, and do not suggest the smallest likeness to the lateral 
incisors which they will ultimately become. 

The foal, during the first six weeks of its existence, does not learn to 
appreciate, at its just value, that which poets have termed "the milk of 
human kindness. " A little shyness, however, exhibited about this period 
shows that doubt has partially shaken the confidence with which the 
appointed master was formerly welcomed. But the little being is still 
docile ; it does not altogether avoid mankind. It will yet accept their 
caresses, permit patiently their mercenary inspections, acting as though 
its mild disposition, the natural inheritance of its tribe, derived actual 



TEETH. 141 

pleasure and amusement bj submitting to tj/e will of him whom it must, 
shortly recognize as an earthly tyrant. 

Why should not the primary lessons of domestication be now gently 
commenced, when the spirit requires not to be subdued and the temper 
needs not to be conquered ? Is there not unnecessary cruelty in the plan 
which is commonly adopted? The young life is allowed to roam at 
large till the time arrives when man conceives the colt ought to be 
"broken in." There is no gradual instruction; no endeavor to coax or 
to soothe by a display of gentleness. Obedience is remorselessly wrenched 
out of the being. Harshness naturally engenders resistance; but in- 
creased severity is employed, till the willing creature is literally con- 
quered and its spirit "broken." This is done to an animal which is born 
anxious to please its superior. Let the reader ponder over this custom, 
and then reflect upon the retentive memory of the subjected race. They 
must remember — they have no ability to forget. Consider the custom, 
and also regard the nature upon which that custom operates ; then say 
whether the breeder goes the proper way to develop that sweetness of 
temper and that gentleness of disposition which increase the value of 
equine property. 

But, to return to the subject of the present paper. There is now a 
long pause before more teeth appear in the mouth. The little one, in 
the mean time, lives chiefly upon suction, and runs, during the period of 
perfect happiness, free by its mother's side. Upon the completion of the 
first month, seldom earlier, it may be observed to lower the head and 
«ip the young blades of the shooting grass. From the third month, 
however, the habit becomes more frequent, until, by the advent of the 
sixth month, the grinders will be worn quite flat ; or, having lost their 
pointed and jagged prominences, will, by the wear of constant mastica- 
tion, have been reduced to the state which is suited to their function. 




THE FRONT TEETU AT NINE MONTHS OLD. 

The corner incisors come into the mouth about the ninth month, the 
four pair of nippers, which have been already traced, being at this time 
fully developed. Above is a view of the foal's teeth, as these are ex- 



142 



TEETH. 



hibited at the period named. The reader will remark that the corner 
incisors, which are depicted as through the gums, do not yet meet, though 
these organs point toward each other; neither has the membrane of the 
mouth at this time entirely lost the deepened hue of infancy. 

From this date, however, the gums gradually become pale, till, by the 
completion of the first year, the membrane has nearly assumed that com- 
plexion which will endure throughout the earlier period of existence. 
All the incisors are, by the first birthday, well up. The masticatory 
agent, although consolidated, has not, when the quadruped is one year 
old, entirely lost the roundness and bluntness of its inferior margin, for 
which the jaw at birth was peculiarly remarkable. 

This fullness of the bone is caused by all the grinding teeth which are 
in the mouth when the foal first sees the light being of a temporary char- 
acter ; the enlargement is consequent upon the jaw, therefore, having to 
contain and to mature the long permanent grinders which, within the 
substance of the bone, are growing beneath the temporary molars. To 
contain and to allow the large uncut teeth to become developed, before 
appearing above the gums, causes the small jaw of a diminutive foal to 
be disproportionately thick, especially when this part is compared with 
the same structure in an aged horse; but the mind is reconciled to its 
apparent clumsiness when apprised of the uses to which the organ is 
subservient. 




THE JAW OF A ONE-TEAR OLD. 



At one year old, the first permanent tooth appears in the head. This 
is the fourth molar, or that which is represented as the most backward 
grinder in the appended engraving. The reader will not fail to remark 
the greater length which the jaw-bone presents at one year old. The 
additional extent also in the opposite direction cannot otherwise than be 
observed. This increase of size was necessitated to cover the increasing 



TEETH. 



143 



size of the recent molar ; also, to afford room for the partial development 
of two other grinders, which, as age progresses, will appear behind that 
which is now the last tooth. 

About this time, frequently at birth, little nodules of bone, without 
fangs, merely attached to the gums, appear in front of each row of grind- 
ers. These are vulgarly denominated "Wolves' Teeth," and were once 
held to be of vast importance. At present, however, they are recog- 
nized as the simple representatives of those organs which in other ani- 
mals (as in man) render the teeth a continuous or unbroken curve. 
They are, by experience, found to be harmless. It is idle to remove 
these organs, especially as they generally disappear with the shedding 
of those members facing which they are located. 

Although by this period the foal has lost the furzy tail, nevertheless 
it has not assumed the aspect of the horse. Its face and its back want 
length ; its trunk needs bulk ; its legs are much too long ; and no one in 
his senses should, for an instant, imagine it could be a full-grown speci- 
men of its race. Indeed, the author would not mention such a possi- 
bility, did he not know a single instance where an error of this nature 
was actually perpetrated with a creature of the equine order. A cockney 
gentleman took up his residence, a few years ago, in one of the channel 
islands, and wishing to procure some safe animal for the amusement of 
his children, the simple Londoner actually purchased and worked a little 
donkey, barely one year old, in his ignorance mistaking the animal for 
an ass which had attained its maturity. That no reader of the present 
volume may commit so cruel a blunder, the portrait of a horse, as it 
appears at the first year of its age, is presented below. 







The changes in the teeth, after the first year of life has been attained, 
are characterized by the longer periods which divide them. Nature 



144 



TEETH. 



appears, as it were, resting to draw breath for a mightier effort than she 
has hitherto undertaken. Months have, heretofore, separated the advent 
of single pairs ; but, from this date, these appearances are to be reckoned 
by numbers and by years. The foal, to the point of its present necessi- 
ties, has been provided for. It has teeth sufficient to support and to 
maintain its growth. 

Nature has now to render perfect the body, before the teeth. Accord- 
ingly, between the first and the second year the alteration in the general 
aspect is very marked. All the helplessness and pretty ungainliness of 
infancy disappears by the expiration of the time mentioned. The ani- 
mal's frame then suggests something of those beautiful proportions which 
it is soon to display. Its body, however, still needs maturing ; and no 
one, less wanting in common sense than a racing man, would think of 
subjecting the youthful and tender form to the hardest of all actual work. 




ABOUT TWO YEARS OLD. 



The very aspect of the creature should denote it to be unsuited for such 
performances. It must, to foreigners, read as strange intelligence, that 
the nobility, who patronize the English course, applaud the contests 
between two-year olds; while the bumpkins, who breed horses for the 
general market, allow the quadruped to enter the third year before the 
colt is given over to the breaker. Alas, for the hardihood or want of 
sensibility displayed by the most exalted, when prompted by the greed 
of gambling ! 

Nothing in the above sketch is more striking than the contrast pre- 



TEETH. 



145 



sented by the character of the head, when compared with the image 
which immediately preceded the last illustration. The face has per- 
ceptibly lengthened ; for by this time a second permanent molar, making 
five grinders on both sides of the upper and of the lower jaws, has broken 
through the fleshy covering of the gums. Preparation is also being 
made for the advent of the sixth grinder, and for changes in those milk 
molars which were in the mouth when the animal was born. At the 
same time, additional width is imperative to allow the permanent inci- 
sors to appear when the proper season arrives for these last organs to 
displace their temporary representatives. 




JAW AT TWO TEARS OLD. 



Should the front teeth of a two-year old mouth be examined, there 
will be perceived a want of that fixedness which, one year before, was 



" if: J;/ 




THE INCISOR TEETH AT TWO TEARS OLD. 



the characteristic of these organs. The central nippers appear to have 
done their duty, or, at all events, suggest something approaching to 
maturity has, during their brief existences, been attained. It will 

10 



146 TEETH. 

hardly provoke regret — certainly it cannot excite wonder — should these 
once beautiful ornaments of the foal's mouth be displaced. Indeed, the 
aspect of jaws in the two-year old plainly intimate approaching altera- 
tion, which in a few months will become apparent. 

Three years old is the period when the greater number of colts are 
brought to market. About this age most animals begin to perform 
work. Omnibus horses are purchased when only thus far advanced in 
life. The army also buys its remounts when no further matured. Car- 
riages are drawn by young horses which, when they become three years 
old, are resigned to the bit, the bearing-rein, and the exactions of Lon- 
don's fashionable ladies. Huntsmen, to be sure, have discovered that a 
quadruped must be "full five" before it can gallop "cross country," take 
fences, and be ridden in at the death, or even be expected to "hold" a 
good place during "the run." But all gentlemen like to sit on the yield- 
ing back of a youthful steed ; though, to be properly maintained, such 
a seat will, very probably, cost fifty pounds a year, if not more money. 
The upper classes of society, and those who sacrifice personal judgment 
to mimic their example, seem to act as though they were assured that 
equine life was, by the third summer, fully fitted to endure the severest 
extortions of mankind ! 

To embitter the fact, every year of the horse's life is not calculated 
according to the calendar. Man chooses to estimate the age of his pos- 
session by another standard than that of the seasons. The first year of 
hardly two animals in the kingdom is precisely of the same length. 
Horses are, by the Jockey Club, permitted to have only two birthdays. 
Thus, all blood foals must first see the light on the first of January ; or, 
should one presume to peep at the world upon the thirty-first of De- 
cember, the decision, which admits of no appeal, will esteem the in- 
truder one year old when the second day of its existence commences. 
Then all animals, not thorough-bred, must forbear to look upon creation 
until the first of May comes round ; or, if they dare to mistake the time, 
even by an hour, they are absolutely pronounced one year old, before 
the little beings can fairly stand up and look about them. 

Such regulations may be very convenient for the purposes of the 
Jockey Club ; but nature has not yet given in her submission to human 
institutions. Medical men know that ladies cannot always calculate to 
the minute; therefore mares, which have not yet learned arithmetic, 
should not be held so very strict to their reckonings. Moreover, when 
men will pay to sit upon the back of a three-year old, it is of all import- 
ance to the spine, which has to endure the burden, whether the nominal 
birthday represents the actual time or merely implies the animal is two 
years and half an hour of positive age. However, the teeth most ob- 



TEETH. 



147 



stinately ignore the sage code of the Jockey Club ; but the laws of that 
controlling body disdain to notice any variation ; for the creature which 
has lost but one nipper, and the quadruped which has four permanent 
incisors fully up, are both esteemed to have been dropped at the same 
hour, though an animal suffering the first-named change, speaking 
truthfully, may be only rising three. 




THE INCISORS DENOTE THREE TEARS OLD. 



At the same time, the confirmed mouth, with the nippers thor- 
oughly consolidated, and gums not showing a tinge of redness, can 
be esteemed of no greater age : both are three years old ; for both must 
have been born on the first of January or on the first of May, — they had 
no business to appear at any other time. If they were presumptuous 
rebels against the just authority and recognized dignity of the Jockey 
Club, then they are beyond the pale of all consideration, and must bear 
the conseqj^ences of their temerity. The differences exhibited by their 
mouths are, therefore, held to be of no account. 

The age at this period ought to be absolutely ascertained ; for most 
horses, when three years old, undergo the greatest exertion. At this 
period, the animal generally has to suffer the instruction of a rude and 
an ignorant — frequently of a brutal and a savage — man, who is justly 
denominated "a breaker.^'' Then, should the "broken" be thought 
worthy of a saddle, it is given up to the gentle mercies of a rough rider, 
and has to be tortured till it is gotten well together, and has thoroughly 
learned its paces. In short, its gentle spirit hafe to be subdued, or fear 
has to master timidity. How little does man know about that life he 
has been accustomed to coerce ! The pride of this world prefers the 



148 



TEETH. 



compulsory drudgery of a spirit-broken slave, to the happy service of a 
willing friend. The horse is sent upon earth, prepared to serve and 
eager to share the happiness of its lord; but it is not understood; it 
meets with no sympathy ; it is treated as a wild and ravenous beast, 
whose subjugation must be enforced and whose obedience must be 
compelled. 




THE INCISORS DENOTE NO MORE THAN THREE TEARS OLD. 



The bit is put into its mouth when the third year has been attained. 
It is driven from the field and from the cool grass ; at a period of change 
and of debility it is expected to display the greatest animation, or to 
learn strange things from him who teaches only with the lash or with 
the goad. When its gums are inflamed ; when the system is excited ; 
when the strength is absorbed by an almost simultaneous appearance 
of twelve teeth, it is led from the plain and made, with its bleeding jaws, 
to masticate sharp oats and fibrous hay. At this age, when fever pre- 
vails in its blood, and the growth of its frame naturally weakens the 
muscles, it is expected to have leisure to master new teachings, anima- 
tion to show off strange acquirements, and stamina to endure the weight 
of the tyrant on its back. 

From this date, it is the inhabitant of a close, a fetid, and a heated 
stable. It may languish for a cool draught of pure air ; but its head is 
haltered to the manger, and there it must remain, to inhale the tainted 
atmosphere of its abode. The fire natural to its condition may rage ; 
but it must not slake the thirst which consumes it till the groom brings 
a pail, only to permit so many gulps or "go downs" to be imbibed. 
Nay, if the poor captive should shift its feet, turn its head, or change its 



TEETH. I'iS 

attitude, in the restlessness of fever, it offends its custodian, who, loung- 
ing upon the locker, watches to maintain order, and can punish, should 
any horse sin against a groom's notion of propriety. Within the stable, 
of an afternoon, all is silent ! The man is uneasy, because of an inward 
consciousness that he is not discharging a humane office. The animals 
are fidgety under unnatural restraint. The very air of the place is op- 
pressive. Nothing appears at ease, save the cat, and this creature dozes 
and purs with enjoyment. But for the poor colt there is no sympathy. 
For should the cutting of many teeth inflame the gums and destroy the 
appetite, an iron is made red hot and violently forced into the mouth, 
under pretense of burning away the groom's favorite disease — "the 
lampas !" which is purely an imaginary disorder. 




JAW OF A THKEE-TE.Ul OLD. 



It has been described that a three-year colt cuts twelve teeth. The 
above engraving represents half the lower jaw of an animal which had 
seen three summers. In it the reader will readily recognize those organs 
which are of recent appearance, by their darker color, by their larger 
size, or by their differing in shape from the other members. These new 
teeth are a central incisor and the first two grinders. The horse has 
two jaws and two sides to each jaw ; therefore the same number being 
present within each side of both jaws, the teeth already alluded to appear 
during the third year. However, even the quantity named rather under- 
states than overrates the fact, for frequently the tushes are cut during 
this period ; should such be the case, the colt acquires no less than six- 
teen teeth in twelve months. We know what the young beings of 
our own species suffer when the gums are ruptured and the bones ab- 
sorbed by the organs of mastication ; the danger then encountered leads 
to a belief that the great agony endured is increased by a rapid growth 



160 



TEETH. 



of the body simultaneously weakening the system. The teeth are only 
a part of the living organism ; therefore, as when a part moves we may 
couclude the whole system is in motion, the advent of sixteen huge 
teeth, alone, might reasonably unfit the quadruped for commencing its 
education, or for undergoing the severest portion of its labors. But 
how do the customs of humanity appear, when illumined by a consider- 
ation of the sufferings which nature is imposing at the time the colt is 
tasked to its greatest exertions ? 

Some very low classes of horse proprietors will, however, make the 
work of the three-year old colt as light as possible. The vulgar gen- 
erally regard the frame at this age as not perfectly matured, and they 
treat the strength as not equal to full labor. A nice practical comment 
is thus published upon the behavior of those gentlemen of title and of 
fortune, who train, start, and make animals run races at two years old ! 
Few members of existing society, however, will accord any indulgence 
to a colt during its fourth year. Yet if the quadruped once possessed 
any claim upon consideration, the animal at this period has positive title 
to our forbearance. For the second effort must be more exhausting than 
the first; since the latter has to be accomplished with diminished 
power. Thus the four-year old has to perfect as many teeth as ai'e 
known to protrude into the mouth of the three-year old. 




JAW OF A FOUR-YEAR OLD. 



The tushes in this view, however, must be disregarded. The precise 
time of appearance is uncertain with these analogues of the canine teeth 
in man, or of the tusks in the porcine race. They may come up at the 
third — they often are delayed to the fourth year ; sometimes these teeth 
never pierce the membrane of the gums, it being very far from uncom- 
mon to see horses' mouths of seven years in which the tushes are absent. 



TEETH. 151 

By the completion of the fourth year, the colt has certainly gained 
twelve teeth ; that is, by this time there should exist, on each side of 
both jaws, one new lateral incisor and two fresh molars, being the third 
and the sixth in position. The appearance of the mouth now announces 
the approach of maturity; but the inferior margin of the lower bone 
still feels more full and rounded than is altogether consistent with the 
perfect consolidation of an osseous structure. We cannot take cogni- 
zance of the swollen and enlarged condition of the jaw, without being 
assured that some important process is going forward within its interior. 
It is among the firmest physiological truths, that nature is a strict 
economist and never does anything without intention ; that every en- 
largement or every depression — however insignificant it may appear 
to human eyes — is a permanent provision for some appointed purpose, 
and has its allotted use in the animal system. Accordingly, it is dis- 
covered the sign we just remarked upon indicates the process of denti- 
tion is not finished by the termination of the fourth year. There are 
more teeth to be cut, as well as the fangs of those already in the mouth 
to be made perfect. This must be a laborious effort. Nature always 
toils slowly in proportion to the density of her work ; when we regard 
the compact structure of a horse's tooth, we may conjecture the quan- 
tity of blood, the amount of inflammation, and the intensity of suffering 
which are necessary for its perfection. 



ONE LOWEB LATERAL INaSOB BEING THROUGH THE GUM DECLARES A FOUB-TEAB OLD. 

Still a gentleman may purchase a colt with one lower lateral incisor 
barely through the gum. Nevertheless, such a condition of mouth must 
be accepted as announcing the animal to be four years old. That fact is 
not to be disputed, for have not the Jockey Club proclaimed it ? Being 
four years old, most people view the colt as needing no indulgence. The 
creature, at this age, is generally urged to the extent of its power. 
Would mortal intellect think on that which it beholds, and endeavor to 
understand the evidence which is presented to its sight, how much that 
is now carelessly passed by unnoticed would be read as a plea for for- 



152 TEETH. 

bearance, and how much misery might be banished from that abode 
which the idle complacently term "a vale of tears"! The gums newly 
lacerated or the jaws bleeding do not indicate that conformation of parts 
or announce that established strength which could endure extreme ex- 
haustion. Such signs rather suggest pain, and declare that life is suffer- 
ing the penalty of existence. They ought to kindle the sympathy of 
him who likewise is born to sorrow, and crave the commiseration of one 
whose sad inheritance it is to draw breath at the risk of misery. Would 
any man expect his child — ^whether girl or boy — when only acquiring 
the permanent front teeth, to be equal to the toil which a task-master 
should allot to fully-developed strength in its prime or in the maturity 
of its power ? The horse is not a speaking crfeature. It has no voice 
to plead or to complain. But what right has the lord of earth, being 
blessed with ability to control his acts and with reason to comprehend 
the signs of nature, to enforce that fate upon the dumb slave in his 
possession from which he would esteem it a duty to shelter his own 
offspring ? 




THESE TEETH EQUALLY DECLARE ONLY FOUR YE.VRS OLD. 

The colt with four incisors in either jaw, all fully grown and worn flat 
with use, is esteemed to be no older than the animal with only one lateral 
nipper barely through the swollen gum. Both creatures, according to 
man's reckoning, are of one age. Neither can, says the Jockey Club, be 
an hour in advance of the other. Yet the colt with four pairs of perma- 
nent incisors in the mouth has not paid the penalty which nature exacts 
from early life. There are still the corner milk nippers to be shed ; yet, 
while the provision necessary for that labor is taking place within the 
body, or while nature is preparing her mute offspring for the coming 
struggle, man considers the poor quadruped as fully developed and as 
enjoying the prime of its existence. 

The teeth may be scarcely visible in the mouth, nevertheless such a 
sign announces the fifth year to be attained. Man, who estimates a 
horse's life according to the laws of the Jockey Club, and ignores na- 



TEETH. 



153 



ture's mode of declaring the duration of existence by signs and attri- 
butes ; man, who in his impatience refuses to reckon age by those func- 
tions which the body has perfected or which it has to mature — man 
seizes upon the imperfect being, as a creature fitted for the accomplish- 
ment of any kind of labor. There are, at five, no more bothering teeth 
to cut. All are through the bone, and the mouth will soon be sound. 
The animal must be in its prime, and the longest day or the hardest run 
should not beat it to a stand-still. Therefore, show ofi" your horseman- 
ship. Mount, trot, prance, gallop, and leap, as you please. Everybody 
says the horse at this time is in its prime. Tear on to plowed fields. 




FIVE-TEAR OLD. 

One upper corner permanent incisor has been cut. The lower corner milk incisor is still retained. 



"Whip the brute over the widest ditch. Dig your spurs into the flanks 
and take the stiffest hedge. The laboring beast may breathe a little 
hard or possibly may reel : but, so the quadruped does the performance, 
and is scarcely alive after it is accomplished — the owner caji hail his 
five-year old as a seasoned horse ! 

Were the writer to pursue this line of observation from year to year, 
the features becoming more minute as time progresses, the investigation 
might ultimately grow wearisome. As age increases, so do the bones 
contract, till absorption at length commences : or at thirty years all the 
appearances of strength, which were conspicuous, will have entirely van- 
ished in the domesticated quadruped that has been subjected to hot 
stables and hard food. The jaw no longer seems endowed with greater 
bulk than is needed for the discharge of its function. It has become 
comparatively thin, and where it once was wide, it is now narrowed. 



154 



TEETH. 



Then, the grinding surfaces of the molars are no longer even or straight. 
Comminution of an artificially-prepared diet, continued for a number of 
years, seems to have worn the organs of mastication into a shallow and 
eccentric curve; or, as pressure persevered with upon any living sub- 
stance promotes absorption, probably the constant grinding of hardened 
food has caused parts of the once even surface to be removed. 




THE JAW OP A FIVE-TEAR OLD. 



However, many readers may feel disposed to turn from the next illus- 
tration, feeling their dislike of the image to be justified by denominating 




JAW OF A TnlRTT-TEAB OLD. 



it an extreme instance. As such it is adduced, and no wrong is, there- 
fore, done by so regarding it. It was inserted simply as bearing con- 
spicuous evidence of that fact which it was the desire to establish. Few, 



TEETH. 



155 



very few English horses live to reach the thirtieth year ; but to show- 
that those signs which were remarkable in the last engraving commence 
at an earlier period, below is the jaw of a twelve-year old horse, in 
which the presence of all the indications that at the thirtieth year seem 
exaggerated, may be clearly discerned in their commencement. 




JAW OF A TWELVE-TEAR OLD. 



The author must now explain the phenomena to which he has directed 
the reader's attention. The molar teeth are not all of the like size, nor 
of one form. The organs occupying the upper jaw are nearly, not quite, 
double the width of those which are located in the lower jaw. The 
inferior molars are the grinding agents, or the active organs of mastica- 
tion. The superior teeth are simply the passive tables upon which, or 
against which, the food undergoes comminution. The slab is always 
the lowest of the two in human mills ; but nature has more to provide 
for than the mere pulverization of certain substances. With mastication, 
actually commences a very compound process. With the act of chewing, 
digestion begins ; it was ordained that more than any mechanical inven- 
tion can accomplish should be imperative to the due performance of this 
function. The benevolence of the All-wise instituted that while his 
creatures were promoting the healthy exercise of the appropriative ne- 
cessity, they should likewise excite their enjoyment. Therefore when 
pulp is masticated, the pressure of the teeth expels the juices, which fall 
directly upon the seat of taste. When a harder substance has to be 
comminuted, the bulk is first shattered into fragments ; the particles, de- 
scending upon either side of the teeth, have to be gathered up and placed 
again between the masticatory organs. The movements of the tongue 
and jaw excite the salivary glands ; the broken substance becomes min- 



156 



TEETH. 




rHE CONDITION IN WHICH THE TABLE 
OP A TEMPORARY MOLAR IS CAST 
FROM THE MOUTH OF A HORSE. 

The dotted lines merely indicate 
the extent of the tooth previous 
to absorption. 



gled with the secretion of the last-named bodies. Saliva extracts the 
savor from the food; and the tongue also brings these in contact with 
the seat of taste, while discharging its office of collecting the broken 
pieces. 

The reader being now fully informed as to facts, may have patience 
sufficient to peruse an explanation of the principles on which the fore- 
going statements are founded. Such a mode of proceeding may, to 
certain methodical writers, seem to be transposing the proper arrange- 
ment. The author does not undertake to defend his actions on the score 

of their propriety ; but he feels that he is ad- 
dressing human beings in whom a desire to 
know is the best possible foundation on which 
knowledge can be established ; consequently, 
principles become less repulsive when com- 
municated after incidents have kindled cu- 
riosity. 

The primary molars cannot boast the length 
of the fang, though they exhibit veiy nearly 
the same extent of superficial surface as char- 
acterizes the succeeding teeth. The}^ have 
rather shallow roots, which are not composed 
of those consolidated materials that are present in their immediate suc- 
cessors. When the original molar is shed, the temporary tooth is not 

expelled entire from its position, but the pres- 
sure of the growing organ (which comes into 
the mouth exactly where the milk grinder 
stood) causes the root to be absorbed, till 
nothing but a superficial shell has to be 
ejected. 

The horse, in its natural state, exists on 
fibrous grasses ; it therefore becomes es.?cntial 
the animal should retain the power of mas- 
ticating such substances. Nature never with- 
holds what is necessary to the well-being of 
her creatures. The mode in which the Com- 
mon Parent provides for the preservation of 
this ability in the horse is perfectly distinct 
from any provision that He makes for most 
earthly creatures. The temporary remains of 
a molar tooth are not shed till another organ 
is in the mouth at hand to permanently sup- 
ply its place. But the permanent tooth does not appear ready fattened 




A FIKST PERMANENT MOLAR, AS 
IT APPEARED IN THE MOUTH, 
UNCOVERED. 

This tooth occupied the fourth 
situation in the jaw ; there- 
fore the root would require 
to be considerably extended 
by subsequent growth. 



TEETH. 



15T 



and prepared to discharge its office. It is cut with certain angular 
prominences upon its masticating surface, which must render the animal 
disinclined to employ it on the instant of its development. This dis- 
inclination allows a pause, during which the various structures can be 
consolidated, and at the end of such brief space the prominences have 
become blunted, while the organ, being firmly planted, is then ready for 
mastication. Is it not surprising how a plain statement of facts can 
reasonably account for that disinclination to feed which, to the groom's 
mind, announces a state of disease that shall necessitate the employment 
of burning iron to eradicate what the man styles "Lampas 1" 

There remains, however, to account for that width and depth of jaw 
by which the head of the youthful horse is distinguished. The reader 
is requested to attentively inspect the last illustration. The size and 
length of fang cannot fail to awaken his surprise. Nevertheless, if this 
part be i*egarded it will be seen depicted as of a ragged, incomplete, and 
apparently of a hollow condition. So, when the tooth has displaced the 
temporary molar, and has taken its station within the mouth, it has still 
to grow. The protruded portion may be consolidated; but the un- 
finished extremity is denominated the cavity of the pulp. That pulp con- 
sists of a fine bladder, on which ramify numerous blood-vessels ; but the 
interior of which contains simply a clear fluid. This is the secreting 
membrane of the tooth. Out of this watery 
bag the wonderful chemistry of nature can ex- 
tract the most condensed material that resides 
within the strong body of a horse. 

Another feature of the above tooth, because 
it balks expectation, can hardly fail to attract 
notice. The dark hue of the outward covering, 
being abhorrent to human notions of youth or 
of purity, is generally attributed to dirt. The 
tooth of the horse is, however, composed of 
three substances : a tough and fibrous material, 
called crusta petrosa ; a thin layer of crystalline 
deposit, named enamel; and a kind of compact 
bone, spoken of as dentine. They occur accord- 
ing to the order in which they are named. The 
bone exhibits a yellow tinge, and is present in 
the greatest quantity, for it forms the inner bulk 
of the tooth. The crusta petrosa is a comparatively thick external en- 
velope, being about five times the substance of the enamel, to which it is 
an outward protection. The components are thrown into various con- 
volutions; but the order alluded to is always preserved. The bone or 




SECTION OF A MOLAR 
TOOTH. 



158 TEETH. 

dentine is invariably the internal substance ; it needs to occupy such a 
position, as within it the sensation resides. The crusta petrosa and the 
enamel may be tampered with without perception being aroused; but 
the dentine is capable of communicating the acutest agony; and it is 
upon the dentine that rogues operate, when they "bishop" an old 
horse. 

To convince the reader that nature has not needlessly sacrificed the 
whiteness of the horse's tooth, the author will dilate fully upon the many 
services afforded by the dark-colored crusta petrosa. To render the 
explanation more intelligible, reference will be here made to a common 
tool seen every day in the hands of an ordinary mechanic. The brick- 
layer's trowel appears to be nothing more than a thick layer of metal ; 
but it is hourly put to uses for which iron would be too soft, and steel 
would be too brittle. Therefore, the blade is composed of a thin layer of 
steel, inclosed within two comparatively thick layers of iron. By the 
combination of opposite qualities, perfect utility is produced ; and this 
trowel, it seems hard to believe, was not suggested by that arrangement 
which is conspicuous in the horse's tooth. 

The enamel, hard, brittle, and readily fractured, but presenting a fine 
or a cutting edge, is developed as a thin layer, convoluted upon the sides 
of the dentine, and securely covered by crusta petrosa. That the incisive 
substance may fulfill its office, may sever or comminute the tough and 
fibrous herbs upon which the equine race subsist, it is inclosed between 
two elastic bodies, the whole being held together by the vessels Avhich 
pass from the exterior to the interior of the organ, though these vessels 
do no more than travel through the enamel without nourishing or sup- 
porting it ; the latter structure being of a crystalline nature, or strictly 
inorganic, therefore not fitted to appropriate nutriment. 

The crusta petrosa is, however, of further use than has been already 
stated. The horse's grinders are generally supposed to be gifted with a 
power of growth whereby they are enabled to repair that perpetual loss 
of substance to which their employment must subject them. The teeth, 
certainly, are not perfected when the crowns first appear in the mouth ; 
so far the opinion is capable of being upheld. But when once completed, 
the dentine is not endowed with any innate ability to renew its loss of 
substance. The wear consequent upon continual use is provided for by 
the length of fang which characterizes the permanent molar of the quad- 
ruped. As the surface gradually decreases, so are the lower parts of the 
teeth, by the contraction of the jaw-bones, forced into the mouth, while 
the outward investing substance — the crusta petrosa — being gifted with 
a limited power of increase, is enabled thereby to firmly retain the 
protruded fang in its new position ; although the contraction of the 



TEETH. 159 

bones, which is always going forward as age advances, does not necessi- 
tate the power of growth should in early life be largely exhibited. 

With almost every form of being, as years accumulate, the ability to 
masticate becomes enfeebled. It is with the horse as it is with other 
animals. The thin coating of enamel does not extend to the ultimate 
root of the fang, so that in advanced age the power of the molars is 
almost destroyed by the absence of the cutting agent upon the grinding 
surface. The chief component, moreover, or the dentine, diminishes in 
quantity as in solidity ; the last portions of the molar, therefore, could 
not fill the socket, only for that ability to increase with which the crusta 
petrosa is gifted. Upon the extreme roots of the grinders, taken from 
the jaws of very old horses, this substance is always found in great 
abundance. In illustration of this fact, a sketch made from the tooth of 
an aged quadruped is here inserted ; the body has been sawn asunder, 
to exhibit the proportions and the substances that 
entered into its composition. The reader will re- 
mark certain dark lines upon the dentine. These 
indicate the places where existed the cavity of the 
pulp, which once served to nourish the organ; but 
it is lost as vitality lessens with the advance of 
senility. Does not the reader, as he inspects the 
engraving, perceive the wickedness and the folly 
of placing harsh and dried food before a creature 
which nature, in age, deprives of ability to comminute such a form of 
sustenance ? 

The permanent incisors are not cut after the same manner as the 
molars. The nippers being merely employed to bite the grass, a wide 
vacancy does not necessarily incapacitate the other portions of the ex- 
cising apparatus. A blade can cut, even though a large notch exist upon 
its edge. Whereas the points which are developed upon the upper sur- 
faces of the newly cut molars must render the grinders entirely useless ; 
although the short period of enforced abstinence, which announces the 
appearance of a fresh double tooth, may be nature's own medicine to 
quiet a feverish system, burning with morbid excitement. 

The front milk teeth have fangs when they appear in the mouth ; but 
no fang exists when the primary members are shed. The root of the 
temporary organ, when perfect, however, resembles that of the perma- 
nent incisor. It is only sufficient to fit the member for its purposes. In 
the same canal as was occupied by the milk tooth, the permanent in- 
cisor generally appears. Much suffering must attend the absorption of 
• bone ; yet, during the time the huge permanent nipper is forcing its way 
through the narrow channel, which held firmly the diminutive milk 




SECTION OF AN AGED MOLAR 
TOOTH. 



160 



TEETH. 



tooth, and while the smaller fang is by pressure being also absorbed, the 
colt receives no consideration at the hands of the groom or of its master. 
Both are equally ignorant of the necessity for kindness ; but each re- 
gards any indication of pain as one of those visitations of disease to 
which young horses are said to be peculiarly liable. 

When the foal has shed the front milk teeth, the entire of the service- 
able or visible portion of these members is displaced. They are en- 
dowed with no power to supply any diminution of their substance, 
neither are they capable of renewal; whereas the long permanent 
incisor may be viewed as all tooth, and possessing no fang ; for as the 
upper portion wears, so does the lower part protrude or supply its place. 
The two teeth, however, present a strong contrast when considered as 





A MIIK AND A PERMANENT INCISOR TOOTH. 



organs, both occupying one cavity, and both united to fulfill the like uses 
in the same animal. The illustration last displayed represented a per- 
manent and a temporary incisor ; the uneven mark dividing the milk 
tooth indicates the appearance of the organ after the absorption of the 
fang causes it to be cast from the mouth, while the dotted line shows the 
shape and the extent of the fang previous to its absorption by pressure. 
The amount of root natural to the permanent incisors enables those 
organs, as years increase, to alter their arrangement, length, and direc- 
tion, without being displaced. In youth, the united front teeth compose 
a curve, or almost a semicircle. In age, the same members incline 
toward a straight, or at best form an irregular line. In the colt, the 
teeth are flat, smooth, and filbert shaped ; but in the old animal, they 
are decidedly long and angular. When the permanent teeth first appear, 
they are nearly perpendicular ; but when they have been a long time ex- 
posed, they protrude almost in the horizontal direction. Looking, from- 
the side, at a young mouth, the spectator can behold half the nippers ; 



TEETH. 



161 



but when inspecting the old teeth from the same point of view, two only 
will be visible, though the full number shall be present in the mouth. In 




8IZ T£AB8 OLD. 



-^/A^\mV^^// 




SEVEN TEAKS OLD. 




^^^:^$^^ 



EIOHT TEAKS OLD. 
THE INCISORS OF HORSES OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF AGE AFTER THE FIFTH TEAR. 

11 



162 



TEETH. 



the aged quadruped, moreover, the narrowing of the incisors allows the 
spaces between the organs to be vacant. Within these spaces the food 




TWELVE itARS OLD. 




TWENTY TEARS OLD. 




THIRTY TEARS OLD. 
THE INCISORS OF HORSES OF DIFFERENT PERIODS OF AGE AFTER THE FIFTH TEAK. 



accumulates, which, being there retained and becoming black, looks as 
though the creature had been chewing tobacco. Such signs are too fixed 



TEETH. 163 

to be disguised. The accumulation of blackened food, it is true, may be 
taken away; but its removal will leave the interspaces, if possible, stil» 
more conspicuous. So also the long teeth may be shortened ; but they 
will not be elevated to the perpendicular, or changed to a filbert form, or 
restored to the semicircular arrangement. 

The tushes likewise may be regarded. These teeth are sometimes 
absent in mares, and in animals of the female sex are seldom developed 
of the size which they commonly exhibit in the male. When first cut, 
the tush is spear shaped, having well-defined grooves running down its 
margins. As age advances, all pretension to this form is lost. The 
tooth either becomes very flat upon its crown or it may be rendered 
level with the gum; else it grows very long, looking more like a coarse 
spike than the organ it really is. Also, when it originally appears in 
the young mouth, the tush ranges evenly with the parts from which it 
grows, and points forward. As senility is attained, the member is 
directed outv/ard ; with extreme old age, it faces backward. The con- 
traction of the jaw causes the tongue to protrude from the free spaces 
between the teeth, while the consequent shallowness of the canal formed 
by the branches of the bone occasions the saliva to dribble forth when 
the lips are parted. 

The indications of extreme age are always present, and though during 
a period of senility the teeth cannot be literally construed, nevertheless 
it should be impossible to look upon the "venerable steed" as an animal 
in its colthood. 

No man can accurately interpret the signs of the teeth after the fifth 
year. A guess, more or less correct, can be hazarded ; but nothing like 
confident judgment can be pronounced subsequent to the period just 
named. Cases will frequently occur, which shall set our best endeavors 
to be correct at defiance. But for such instances it is not difficult to 
account. The Jockey Club may order as it pleases about birthdays; 
but children and foals will, nevertheless, obtrude upon the world all the 
year round. Such downright absurdity, as a pretense at controlling the 
operations of nature, was never perhaps equaled, save by the burlesque 
monarch depicted by Mr. Planche, who, because he is hungry, wills that 
it be one o'clock, when the sun declares the time to be only twelve. It 
might be more convenient, certainly, if foals could agree all to put in 
appearances at a particular date ; but until such an arrangement has 
been entered into by the parties principally concerned, it is idle pre- 
sumption for any set of men to issue ordinances which, never being 
observed, render "confusion worse confounded." 

The difference between the times of birth in various animals, it is 
true, may cause different aspects in the teeth, and even induce men, in 



164 TEETH. 

obedience to the rules of the Jockey Club, to call a colt four, which 
truth and the teeth declare to be only three. Horses may therefore be 
readily reckoned older than they really are : but there is a general belief 
that rogues in Yorkshire can make the teeth say five, when the actual 
age is only four ; or, in other words, can so successfully tamper with the 
mouth as to induce the teeth to belie the actual age. Ignorant people 
have a blind faith in the power of those who chance to be more knowing 
than themselves ; but the author can only regard the general belief in 
"Yorkshire fives," as illustrating the total unacquaintance of the public 
with all that concerns equine economy. 

An elderly lady once laid claim to a dog which she beheld led about 
the streets for sale. The possessor disputed her title, and the pair were 
by the police introduced to a magistrate. Both gave a different name 
as that belonging to the animal. The dog came to either appellation. 
When put down on the floor of the court, it went to man or lady with 
equal indifference. It was a puzzling case. At length, the bench was 
illumined by a bright idea. "Hand me the dog," cried his worship, who 
quickly placed it out of sight. Then, addressing the female supplicant, 
he said, "I beg your pardon. All you have said about signs and marks 
may be perfectly correct ; but such things, possibly, in two animals, may 
be the same. The creature evidently does not appear to recognize its 
mistress ; for, though it comes to your call, yet it will leave you when 
spoken to from an opposite direction. I beg your pardon, madam, we 
have settled, apparently, all points but one. Pray excuse me ! But was 
your animal a gentleman or a lady ?" " Oh ! sir !" replied the distressed 
female, "mine was a lady dog." "Then I am afraid I must give the 
case against your ownership, for this dog is decidedly a gentleman." 
With that, he returned the animal to the man. " Stop, sir ! Stay ! Oh ! 
pause ! Consider, sir, those dog stealers can play such tricks," sobbed 
forth the disconsolate female. 

So particular people appear to credit Yorkshire horse dealers with an 
ability to perform "such tricks." No doubt they have every wish; but 
the author questions whether they have yet attained the power to compel 
nature at their bidding. All they are said to do, as pulling out the milk 
teeth, firing and blistering the gums, are like the arts which were for- 
merly used to raise the evil one ; and, in the writer's opinion, about as 
likely to be attended with success. Cruelty is more calculated to retard 
than to promote development. However, if the mouth exhibit the signs 
proper to a five-year old, the animal may Avith safety be purchased, as 
being of that age. Should it be younger than five, the owner is the 
gainer ; since the teeth do no more than indicate the development of the 
body, and an early maturity is the best evidence that the quadmped, 
during the previous years, has been tenderly nurtured. 



TEETH. 165 

Certain readers may feel opposed to the illustrations which have been 
inserted into this division of the present volume. It may be justly ad- 
vanced that, in the earlier portion of the present treatise, the author 
asserted horses could live until the animal had reached its sixtieth year. 
However, recently he adduced the mouth of a quadruped which endured 
but half that period ; yet this specimen exhibited features indicative of 
immediate decay. 

Such an accusation would be well grounded ; it could not be denied. 
The sixty-year old of which the writer spoke was not feeding in the 
stable. The creature whose teeth are delineated to represent the ap- 
pearances displayed at the thirtieth year was not in the field, but tied 
up in a stall. The one quadruped was consuming its natural food, the 
other had to masticate those artificially-prepared substances w^hich man 
finds it most convenient to place before the dumb captive. 

The engravings inserted to illustrate the aspect of the mouth, during 
the thirtieth year, may therefore be regarded as exemplifying the evils 
which result from the present mode of feeding. Hay and oats, as now 
given in dry and hard conditions, are the most expensive articles of 
sustenance which could be found. Much of the hay passes through the 
system only partially digested. In what condition the oats are voided, 
the sparrows of the roadway and the chickens on the dung hill equally 
attest. Under the present S3^stem at least half the diet is ejected from 
the body unappropriated. Much more would be lost, but for the capa- 
cious and convoluted intestines of the equine race. Within these, the 
provender swallowed is long retained, and during the entire period of its 
retention it is exposed to the digestive action which its components are 
beautifully formed to resist. 

Aloes, a most drastic purgative, is the one in common use with stable- 
men. It takes four and twenty hours before its operation is witnessed ; 
for an entire day it lies dormant within the body, notwithstanding the 
aids of warm water, bran mashes, and occasional exercise are resorted 
to, so as to quicken its laxative effects. The animal, during this period, 
is obviously ill, and the medicine may be heard causing a "rumbling 
noise " within the bowels. But if a drastic purgative is four and twenty 
hours traveling along the digestive track, what period will be occupied 
by those dry materials which must have positively a constipating effect ? 
However, the latter kind of diet is not all acted upon when cast forth ; 
that portion which is ejected in an unchanged condition represents so 
much cash which has been expended to no pui-pose. 

Of course, the mastication of artificially-prepared food wears the 
teeth, and also taxes the powers of nature far more than would the 
natural diet. By the operation of both causes, the horse's life is ren- 



166 TEETH. 

dered much shorter than it would bo were the animal kept after a nat- 
ural fashion. The diminished period of existence we will mildly esti- 
mate at one-half the natural duration ; therefore, under the existing 
mode of stable management, every gentleman pays twice as much for 
an animal as under a better system need be given. Nay, the extrava- 
gance does not end here; for the unnatural nourishment first generates 
weakness, and weakness is the beginning of disease. There is, there- 
fore, to be added to the account — annoyance, loss of service, and the 
veterinary surgeon's charges. To crown all, the proprietor cannot 
obtain the full exertion from the animal ; the body being only partially 
supported even during the seasons of imperfect health. The incom- 
pletely digested food has also to be considered. Altogether, as the 
author has no desire to make out a case, suppose the latter influences 
reduce the value of the remaining portion of life one-half, and we arrive 
at the conclusion that the horse proprietor literally squanders fifteen 
shillings out of every pound he pays for his horse ; and he is thus ex- 
travagant, simply because, to consult the convenience of his groom, he 
will persist in feeding the animal upon a most unnatural and injurious 
kind of diet. 

This subject will, however, be fully considered in the next chapter, 
where " food " is separately regarded. The author must only here state 
that he is not advocating a return to grass, although grass may suggest 
an idea as to the proper kind of nutriment without itself being the thing 
desired. It is certainly true that horses look round for their food, and 
the stable is always in commotion when the hour arrives for its distri- 
bution. This fact, however, establishes nothing. Horses are fidgety 
equally during the period of watering. Horses, in other countries, are 
uneasy when the stable companions are being fed ; yet in all countries 
they do not live as in England. In the extreme northern parts of the 
world, they eat dried fish ; in the Crimea, they gnawed one another's 
tails ; in Arabia, they feast upon barley and chopped straw ; in India, 
rudely cut grass, which has frequently parted with its moisture as well 
as shed its seed, and a dark grain termed "gram," is their support. In 
Germany, they enjoy black bread. In Ireland, they delight in raw 
potatoes. In various parts of England, they enjoy difi"erent sorts of 
nourishment. In some countries, boiled substances are the favorite dish. 
In others, cut roots are swallowed with avidity ; while there is a growing 
custom of administering those various seasonings, all of which bear the 
general designation of "patent food." In short, the stabled horse can ap- 
parently be brought to consume anything ; but of all the known varieties 
of diet, the author must regard that which is harsh, dried, and artificially 
prepared, as the most convenient — but the most injurious and unnatural. 



TEETH. 167 

Its consequences are, perhaps, best exhibited by the thirst which it 
will generate. The horse is not, naturally, a large drinker ; but if the 
internal portions of the body have to supply moisture, in order that these 
parts may extract the nutriment from dry food, the water must be re-' 
placed from an outward source. Horses have been known to be ill from 
excessive thirst. Mr. William Percivall, the late respected author on 
veterinary subjects, has recorded a case of this description. Neverthe- 
less, copious draughts of cold water are frequently attended with 
danger; only, does it not exhibit a refinement upon cruelty — firstly, to 
imprison an animal, and fasten it to one spot; secondly, to give only 
such provender as must generate a craving for fluid ; thirdly, to with- 
hold the liquid which our folly has created a desire to imbibe ? 

The stable diet, moreover, throws the incisors out of use. These 
teeth, in the domesticated animal, are employed only to grasp a little 
hay and to pull it from the rack. They are of no further service. One 
of their popular names, "nippers," is in general a misnomer, for they are 
permitted to nip nothing ; much less are they allowed to exercise their 
incisive faculty. Therefore, being thrown out of use, the members have 
no function to control their natural growth. They continue to protrude 
as age advances, till, by the thirtieth year, or by the time the quadruped 
has attained half the period of its natural existence, the front teeth have 
become long spikes, and are actual deformities within the mouth they 
were designed to adorn. 

So palpable a sign is, however, not understood. To be sure, the 
present treatment of the horse slaughters the majority of its fellows before 
dentition is perfected. Few gentlemen, therefore, may have looked upon 
an aged quadruped ; for prevailing fashion declares the creature, whose 
strength and youth have been devoted to man's pleasure, should be sold 
so soon as the advent of age is apparent. The chances, consequently, 
are, that the present chapter will be ''news" to the greater number of 
readers. It may record facts which will be perused with wonder, and it 
may adduce circumstances which will be read with surprise. 

Though up to the present moment these things may not have been 
properly regarded, from the present time there can be no excuse for con- 
tinuing existing customs. Why should the teeth of the horse alone be 
subjected to abuse? The dog lives off biscuits and cooked flesh; the 
cat enjoys the scraps from the family table. Why should the horse, of 
all strictly domesticated creatures, be doomed to consume raw food? It 
would be cheaper to prepare all sustenance for digestion, since, in that 
/orm, less would communicate more nourishment; and if the matter is 
to be decided as a money question, there can be no doubt as to the side 
on which pecuniary interest would range. 



CHAPTER Y. 

FOOD — THE FITTEST TIME FOR FEEDING, AND THE KIND OP FOOD WHICH 
THE HORSE NATURALLY CONSUMES. 

The folly of perversity or the madness of abuse can imagine no pos- 
sible wrong that the human race have not inflicted upon the creature to 
which civilization owes its heaviest obligations. The horse, which more 
than shares in mortal toil, is forced to work before its bones are matured. 
When strained and deformed by the severity of labor, it is sworn at and 
lashed because its body shares, with all things on this earth, the perish- 
ableness which is inseparable from mortal existence. It is created to 
enjoy the freest breezes of the plain ; but, by the superior power which 
has domesticated, the type of activity is doomed to stand, throughout 
life, within the narrow confines of a stall. It is the emblem of timidity ; 
yet it is driven into every species of peril. Nature endowed it with 
fleetness, and formed it to delight in action ; but mankind expect it to 
exhibit health during years of inactivity, and think its limbs should not 
become stifi" from incessant lack of motion. 

Its food grows abundantly on the surface of earth; every fresh 
mouthful necessitates an additional step ; for the animal, when free, 
walks as it eats, and lowers the head, to collect its sustenance from the 
ground. Mankind imprisons the poor life ; the hay is placed level with 
the ears, and the corn is given even with the chest of the animal. Nay, 
the very groom, when he permits water to be imbibed, raises the pail, 
resting its edge upon his knee. Nature enabled the horse to feed by 
night, — when the air is cool ; when all is quiet ; when the grass is moist, 
and when the flies are not abroad : then the emblem of concord pastures 
in peacefulness. The stabled horse is allowed to eat only by day. 
Though intended to be watchful, horse masters insist the wakeful quad- 
ruped should accept twelve hours of repose ; and they lock the stable 
door, that its imaginary slumbers may be undisturbed. 

The sufferer wears clothes only while under shelter. During summer 

it always retains its coat ; but, as frost and snow approach, the covering 

which nature sent to conserve the body's warmth human wisdom either 

clips or singes away, dooming the native of a sunny clime to shiver in 

(168) 



FOOD. 169 

the blast of a northern winter. Man knows that heat benefits his slave ; 
yet the horse only feels it as the product of impurity ; so that, either it 
must suffer from the lowness of temperature, or it must languish from 
the inhalation of a tainted atmosphere. 

The summit of wrong, however, seems to be attained, when we con- 
sider the food which the companion of man is condemned to consume 
within the walls of its dungeon. The corn is gathered after it has 
become ripe, or after all moisture has ceased to circulate within the 
grain; and even then it must be hardened and further dried by age 
before it is cast into the manger. The juicy herbage of the field — the 
soft verdure of the earth — is the natural support of the creature. Never- 
theless, man presents grass to his captive only after the wind and the 
sun have expelled moisture from the stems; and after fermentation in 
the stack often has parched the blades till these crumble beneath the 
touch. 

When time has accomplished the hardening which human perversity 
regards as most essential toward maintaining the health of a horse; 
when both corn and hay have been transformed into stubborn and un- 
3'ielding substances; at the age when the first will rattle harshly on 
being shaken in the sieve, and the last grate audibly when moved by the 
fork, — then, only then, is either placed before the quadruped. Such 
provision the prisoner must consume or starve. Hunger is the hardest 
of all task-masters. The dumb being cannot tell of the agony occasioned 
by man's forcing its organ's of mastication to uses which will wear down 
the hardest and coarsest of stones; it cannot portray the torment of 
thirst, begotten by the long pulverization of matter rendered tough and 
dry by artificial processes ; it cannot describe the agony produced by the 
grating of such nutriment upon the tender membrane of the stomach; 
nor can it announce those cruel diseases which afflict the sufferer, — each 
being engendered by mistaken treatment, against which the afflicted is 
powerless to appeal. 

That which the mouth was designed to prepare, the stomach was 
intended to appropriate. Moist food is most enjoyed by the horse, and 
moisture is likewise imperative for the completion of digestion. Upon 
the accomplishment of this process health and life are dependent. There 
is no part of the frame which is endowed with an independent existence. 
By that which the root absorbs, the remotest twig is nourished. The 
feet or the limbs may fail ; man may term such a failure a misfortune, 
or speak of it as an accident ; but the weakness of the body is the pri- 
mary necessity of almost all such occurrences. The trunk must bend 
before the vigor of inflammation can be displayed ; and health must have 
departed before the presence of disease is possible. 



I'TO FOOD. 

"Nonsense I folly! downright stupidity!" some sporting reader may 
exclaim. "Look at all men, when in training. Do not they, during 
such time, live upon dry foodV' Certainly not. Not upon food "dry'^ 
in the same sense as is implied by the sound hay and seasoned oats of 
the stable. Bread, seen upon any human table, whether as loaf or bis- 
cuit, is a moist substance, when compared with either of the articles on 
Avhich horses subsist. But what shall be said about the contents of the 
rack or the manger, when compared with the under-done rump steak of 
which man, when in training, so frequently partakes ? 

Nor is the subject fairly reviewed, when the form of food is alone 
considered. The horse does not graze without selection. Certain herbs 
are scrupulously avoided; others are eagerly sought for. The animal 
does not eat straight before it ; but the head moves to either side, each 
mouthful being carefully collected Avith the lips before the juicy tops of 
the plants are operated upon by the teeth. The horse feeds only off the 
growing ends of the grasses. The varying herbage may be supposed 
to present numerous savors to the keen scent of the pasturer ; and a 
fresh flavor may be relished with each new mouthful. Nature has evi- 
dently scattered variety, where the dull sense of man can perceive only 
sameness; and, to the temperate palate of a horse, the verdure of the 
fields may afford a delicious and an ever-varying banquet. 

The instinct which enables the animal to make a selection among 
numberless growing plants, fades and is lost when moisture has departed 
with the color, and the perfume natural to the herbage has been changed 
by art. The animal perceptions may be puzzled ; for art can defeat in- 
stinct. Some quadrupeds, as if much perplexed, will pick the hay, 
eating little, but spoiling more than is consumed. Others appear to 
distaste the preparation, and these refuse it altogether. Few inhabitants 
of the stable will accept all that may be placed before them, though the 
rejection may depend more upon the fastidiousness begotten by captivity, 
than be generated by positive dislike. Few animals exhibit either choice 
or discretion in the selection of certain portions of prepared fodder. The 
rejection of particular parts seems to be guided only by fancy or caprice. 
That which in the green state would be abhorred, when " cut and dried" 
may by preference be devoured. 

We can reasonably conclude that the impulses of instinct, being natural 
instructors, convey wise admonitions. Many people are so credulous as 
to believe that the Creator is all-wise, and that nothing formed by the 
will of Omnipotence is without a special purpose. It is man who 
converts grass into hay; thus rendering nugatory that discrimination 
which was bestowed as a protection upon the lower life. 

Some persons may feel disposed to assert that all power to injure is 



FOOD. Itl 

also lost, when the natural odor of prepared herbage has been changed ; 
they may argue that what was injurious, with the scent has also lost 
the characteristic capability to harm. Does chemistry uphold such a 
conclusion ? The dried and powdered herbs of the Pharmacopoeia point 
to an opposite inference. Experience and experiment warrant a con- 
trary judgment. The yew-tree is an active poison to the horse. Gar- 
deners annually clip the compact hedges of yew, which too frequently 
surround and shelter country lawns. The twigs often fall into fields 
where horses are pastured. While the cuttings remain green, the ani- 
mals recognize the poisonous nature and refuse to partake of the fallen 
leaves. But let exposure dry the refuse, and the grasses of the meadow 
are deserted, to devour that which was previously avoided. The poison, 
however, has not evaporated with moisture. The odor, by which danger 
was recognized, alone has been lost ; but the deadly nature seems to be 
more concentrated : or the issue may be rendered speedier by the les- 
sened bulk of the dried vegetable, and the greater amount of it which 
therefore can be swallowed. 

Apply the above illustration, and, guided by its teaching, say how far 
man is justified in presenting the w^holesale gathering of a field to a 
hungry horse. It is true, we know of no injury being produced by hay. 
But we know that the stable, as at present managed, is far from a health- 
ful abode. We are certain, instinct was not created without a pui-pose ; 
and we have seen that the vegetable, which is avoided when fresh, is 
not rendered powei'less by its moisture being expelled. Therefore, 
guided by such monitors, we can do no wrong by endeavoring to render 
hay a wholesome food. None of the grasses are positively poisonous ; 
but the animal prefers those which have a crisp and clean appearance. 
Soft or woolly provender is never relished. It were an easy labor for a 
youth to select the good from the bad ; while doing this, the boy might 
be instructed to reject all and everything which was not the fitting kind 
of grass. The cost of such a process would be very trifling, and the 
welfare of the animal might soon repay all extra outlay. 

However, few, very few people know how to tell a good from a bad 
sample of hay. Yast quantities of that which no proprietor should 
oblige his imprisoned slaves to consume, are daily sold ; some persons 
even prefer particular kinds of produce ; while others, urged by par- 
simony, will purchase only damaged hay. There should be, however, 
in this substance little room for the exercise of choice or of discretion. 
The characteristics of good hay are very marked, and such only should 
be purchased by the careful horse owner. 

It is the intention of the author to ofi"er some remarks upon this sim- 
ple but excessively important topic. The comments will be accompanied 



172 



FOOD. 



with tinted wood engravings, which will help the judgment, though these 
cannot inform the reader on every particular. Therefore, he must kindly 
assist the writer, as few things are more difficult to describe than taste 
or smell ; since these senses are always under the control of individual 
predilection. 




LAD SOKTINQ HAT. 



Upland Hay should look clean. Every fiber should appear distinct. 
The color should be bright and should convey an idea of newness. No 
dust ought to be present; neither should the sample, however much it 
may have been disturbed, lose its prominent features. The constituents 
will all point pretty much in one direction. Of course this order is not 
so absolute as to appear like arrangement, but the confusion which gen- 
erally marks the fibers of the after-meath is never present in a fair 
sample of well-carried "Upland hay." The scent is commonly very 
pleasant — not so strong as, but in other respects little different from, the 
perfume of new-mown hay : to most people its odor is highly agreeable. 
Weeds should not be abundant; but the presence of foreign growths is 
clearly indicated by their darker hue, by the browner tint, and the fuller 
form. The stems should not have shed the seeds, though grasses vary 
so much in the period of their ripening that it is vain to expect some 
will not have broken this rule. When a portion is placed within the 



FOOD. 



Its 



mouth and is masticated, it rather communicates a mild and pleasant 
flavor than yields a strong or pungent taste. In short, cleanness and 
delicacy are the prominent characteristics of "Upland hay;" which some 
growers imagine is scarcely injured by long keeping. New hay is cer- 
tainly objectionable. But the year's growth is wholesome feed by 
November ; and, in the author's judgment, it is best when it first comes 
into use. 




THE CHARACTER AND THE COLOR OF UPLAND HAT. 



Lowland Hay. — This kind of preserved grass lacks the bright color, 
being more tawny than the preceding ; indeed, the absence of the green 
tint is conspicuous, and can hardly fail to be remarked. The arrange- 
ment of the fibers is not so well preserved, neither is the crispness or the 
newness of aspect, for which "Upland hay" is notable, to be remarked 
in the "Lowland truss." The flowering heads to the stems are all but 
absent. When felt, it communicates a sense of softness. If rattled, no 
brisk sound is elicited. It has a stronger and a more pungent perfume. 




THE CHARACTER AND THE COLOIl OF LOWLAND HAT. 



The odor is very far from being so delicate ; neither is the taste char- 
acterized by any pleasantness of flavor. When placed between the 
teeth, mastication communicates a sense of softness and toughness : the 
taste is coarse, almost disagreeable : at first it is vapid, though after a 
short space a certain amount of pungency is developed. The woolly 
texture ; the want of boldness in the component parts ; their comparative 
smallness; with the washed-out aspect of the whole, and the confusion 
of the mass, should prevent a novice even from accepting " Lowland " for 
"Upland hay." 

Rowen or After-meath presents a greater confusion than even "Low- 



174 



FOOD. 



land hay." The softness is more conspicuous; flowering heads are only 
occasionally met with ; the stems are few in number, are small in point 
of size, and foi'm no prominent feature of the whole. This species of 
fodder lacks perfume altogether ; but, as regards color, it may have a 
slight greenish tint clinging faintly to it. Still, by its want of the brisk 
or the healthy aspect, and by its darker hue, it is at once recognized for 
the thing it is, — an unseasonable produce, reaped late in the year, and 




A V. Rr FAIR SAMPLE OF ROWEN OR OF AFTER-MEATH. 



got up long after the freshness of spring had departed. To the mouth 
it imparts a strong and slightl}'' bitter taste. The odor is not objectiona- 
ble, although it does not approach to a perfume. Horses Avhich have 
been accustomed to the better sort, refuse Rowen, or only accept it after 
actual hunger has been experienced. 

Clover Hay is universally mixed with grass and weeds. A good 
sample of this produce, a novice might easily reject as being too foul a 
specimen for his approval, and the hay of the second crop (which is not 
generally remarkable in that particular) be selected in preference. The 
stems also appear to bear a large proportion to the whole, when compared 




A SPECIMEN OF TUB FIRST CROP OF CLOVER HAY. 



with the flowers and the leaves. The fact of the stalks being rarely 
viewed in the clover field may render this feature the more conspicuous. 
But the stems are hollow, and consequently lose little bulk when dried. 
The flowers and leaves, on the contrary, are juicy ; and no insignificant 
portion of their substance is, apparently, lost during evaporation. In 
the first cut of clover, however, the stems, though numerous, are compara- 
tively fine, and the leaves, though dark, have no tinge of blackness. The 



FOOD. 1'I5 

flowers are abundant, and faded, of course ; but they still retain indica- 
tions of their original color. Though compressed, they nevertheless 
suggest what has once been their figure. In taste, a marked resemblance 
is recognized between the slight flavor of the hay and the strong aroma 
of the growing plant. 

The Second Crop of Clover is distinguished by the grasses and weeds 
of the first cut being all but absent. The stems are larger, firmer, and 
bear a greater proportion to the whole. The flowers are not so numer- 
ous, and are more dingy in appearance, as well as apparently less carefully 




THE SECOND CROl' OR AFTER-MEATH OF CLOVEK. 



preserved. Mastication also enables to be recognized a coarser and a 
stronger flavor than characterizes good hay of the spring's harvest. The 
leaves approach near to a black tint. When a truss of the first and one 
of the second crop of clover are placed together, the last appears re- 
markable for depth of color. 

Heated or Mow-burnt Hay is that which has been subjected to such 
uncontrolled fermentation as shall scorch the substance, and, if not 




A VERY EXCELLENT SAMPLE OF HEATED HAT. 

checked, would ultimately fire the stack. A certain amount of fermenta- 
tion is needful for the development of sound hay, but should the necessary 
action be sufifered to proceed too far, "heated or mow-burnt hay" is the 
result. Most horses will eat this kind of fodder with appetite when it is 
first presented ; but after the novelty of the diet has subsided, there are 
few animals which do not apparently loathe such produce. The illustra- 
tion by no means represents the worst specimen which the author has 
encountered, but it is of that medium character which best conveys a just 



1T6 FOOD. 

idea of a general subject. From this sample, however, certain leaves 
could be chosen that are perfectly black, and which, when attempted to 
be rolled between the fingers, would crumble into powder. Such a 
peculiarity, together with the darkened hue, affords the easiest means of 
recognizing this provender, which, although some silly people by prefer- 
ence employ in their stables, is very far from being a wholesome food for 
horses. Burnt vegetable matter produces potash ; therefore there can be 
no cause to reject, as a groundless prejudice, the assertion that much 
"moAV-burnt hay" will occasion diabetes. It has a powerful odor, re- 
sembling the mixed smell w^hich pervades a public hay market ; but the 
taste has little to distinguish it, being somewhat vapid. 

Weather-beaten Hay is equally devoid of smell or of taste. It has a 
ragged, a confused, and a broken aspect. The hue is deepened ; but the 
color greatly depends upon the period of its exposure, the soil on which 
it has lain, the amount of wet to which it has been subjected, and the 
condition in which it has been "got up." So delicate a produce as care- 




WEATHER-BEATEN nAT. 



fully prepared hay, of course cannot be long exposed to the effects of 
wind and rain without its more choice qualities being deteriorated, while 
to the extent of its deterioration, of course the farmer can oppose no 
check. Therefore a fair general specimen, exhibiting the common char- 
acteristics of the majority of samples, is submitted to the reader ; but it 
cannot be expected that a single illustration should embody the multi- 
form aspects Avhich are generated by diverse and powei'ful influences 
acting upon a perishable substance. 

Musty Hay is readily recognized by its strong and peculiar smell, 
resembling the refuse which has been employed to stuff articles of cheap 
furniture. This it likewise calls to mind by its rumpled and confused 
appearance. It should never be offered to any animal as a substitute 
even for better food. 

"ITpland Hay," as will be seen by the foregoing remarks, is a fair 
general fodder for the horse. To it, however, a portion of clover hay 
should be addtsd ; but this last is best given in the form of chaff. Ready- 
cut chaff should never be purchased, because most persons have extraor- 



FOOD. I'TT 

dinarj notions as to the ingredients suited for such a form of provender. 
Hay, which the animal refuses to touch when placed in the rack, is often 
salted and cut into chaflF. Thus seasoned, and in such a shape being 
mixed with corn, it may be eaten. The horse is imposed upon by the 
salt and the oats which were mingled with the trash ; but the sane pro- 
prietor has only to calmly inquire of himself — whether that savor which 
disguises the taste can also change an unwholesome substance into a 
wholesome nutriment? 

It is likewise a prevailing custom to cut straws of different kinds and 
to throw the rubbish into the chaff bin. Such a practice is spoken of as 
among the improvements of modern horse-feeding. The quadruped may 
consume this species of refuse, but it is, in the author's judgment, not a 
matter for doubt whether such articles merely distend the stomach or 
whether they can nourish the body. People who advocate cheapness 
may be favorable to the use of straw; but these persons should not 
deceive themselves, far less ought they to impose upon others, by assert- 
ing so exhausted a material can possibly prove a supporting constituent 
of diet. 

Within the stem of the ripened wheat plant no sap circulates. All 
the strength of the growth has gone to the seed. Were not the sapless 
stalk cut and preserved by man, it would shortly topple over, and, by 
decay, be mingled with the soil. It is well understood that grass, >after 
it has shed its seed, is unsuited for making a nutritious hay. Grain- 
yielding plants are only cultivated grasses ; and the art which has en- 
larged the seed and lengthened the stem cannot pretend also to have 
mastered the laws of nature by having endowed a refuse material with 
nutritious properties. Persons who desire to have straw mingled with 
the manger food of the horse, should take some pains to procure articles 
rightfully prepared. The plants should be mown while green ; be prop- 
erly treated, stacked, and husbanded with more than the care usually 
bestowed on ordinary stems. The same rule should be observed with 
regard to bean stalks, or whatever else is to be severed into lengths, and 
is to be esteemed a fitting food for the horse. 

Thus prepared, the wheat stem might prove worthy the repute which 
is at present bestowed upon its exhausted representative. When har- 
vested after this plan, the stalk would retain all that virtue which, at a 
later season, is expended upon the seed. It would nourish as well as 
distend. Indeed, the popular custom of giving horses that for food 
which adds to the bulk of provender, but does not support the system, 
cannot be too strongly reprobated ; yet such a practice is followed in the 
great majority of existing stables. The animals, to satisfy the cravings 
of appetite, are compelled to devour more than their diminutive stom- 

12 



nS FOOD. 

aclis should contain. Over-gorging is likewise promoted by the habit 
of subjecting all kinds of horses to prolonged and unnatural periods of 
abstinence. The consequences of such customs are exemplified in the 
attenuated stomachs of most old subjects. Often this viscus, upon the 
muscular and secretive actions of which the health and the strength are 
dependent, when taken from the body of an animal which has long been 
subjected to the abuses practiced in the modern stables, is of so stretched 
a nature as to be semi-transparent, and sometimes as thin as brown 
paper. 

When a horse returns home, after a long fast, it is most unwise to 
place the famished life before a heaped manger. First attend to its 
immediate requirements. These satisfied, and the harness removed, a 
pail of gruel should be offered to the animal. The writer knows it is 
said by many grooms that their horses will not drink gruel ; the author 
likewise is aware that most servants dislike the bother attendant on its 
preparation, while few understand the manner in which it should be 
prepared. The general plan is to stir a little oatmeal into any pail 
containing hot water, and to offer the mess, under the name of gruel, 
to the palate which long abstinence may have rendered fastidious. The 
horse only displays its intelligence when it rejects the potion thus rudely 
concocted. 

No stable is complete unless its furniture embraces a two-gallon pot, 
and a pail which is kept sacred to cleanly purposes. Then, with regard 
to oatmeal; this substance, as commonly sold by corn-chandlers, and 
some bakers, is positively rank. It is naturally sweeter even than other 
meals ; but, by long keeping, it contracts a pungent and a most unpleas- 
ant taste. To be good, it should be fresh ; and the coarser it is, the finer 
is the gruel which it yields. 

There are feAv places in London where the oatmeal which is purchased 
can be depended upon. The writer, however, has for several months 
enjoyed, every morning and night, a mess of most excellent porridge, 
made from coarse Scotch or "round" meal procured of Mr. C. Rayment, 
corn-chandler, Queen's Buildings, Knightsbridge. It is so sweet and 
pleasant that the diet requires no "Kitchener," or accompanying condi- 
ment, to recommend it. The preparation is eaten without flavoring; 
and it seems to possess medicinal properties, as under its use the writer 
has lost that yellowness of skin which formerly denoted the liver to be 
deranged, while he is rapidly regaining health, and has entirely discarded 
the employment of drugs. 

One quart of Mr. C. Rayment's Scotch oatmeal should be thrown into 
the two-gallon pot, which is to be gradually filled with boiling water, a 
little cold being first used, merely to divide the grains. The saucepan 



FOOD. 179 

is tlien placed on the fire, and its contents are to be brislily stirred until 
the liquid has boiled for ten minutes. After this, it may be put where 
it will only just simmer ; and, in one hour, the gruel will be ready, or 
in shorter time, should the fire be fierce. The liquid is then poured 
through a sieve, or should the steed be excessively exhausted, the gruel 
may be mixed with one quart of sound ale and with half a pound of 
sugar. The solid part is mingled, while hot, with an equal quantity 
of bran, and this mixture, having been closely covered, is placed in the 
manger half an hour after the gruel has been imbibed. 

Some horses, however, purge when brought home after a long fast. 
Such animals are generally of a loose and weakly constitution. For 
creatures of this description the bran would prove injurious, and an 
additional pint of meal had better be boiled in a quart of water, which, 
when mixed with the solid from which the gruel has been strained, will 
constitute a moist and highly nutritious diet for a delicate horse. The 
author has, for experiment, tried this form of food upon several quad- 
rupeds, which he was assured abhorred everything like mash or gruel ; 
but only in one instance was the preparation not eagerly consumed. In 
the exceptional ease it was not entirely rejected, being partly eaten ; but 
the writer suspects the apparently dainty cjuadruped had been previously 
supplied with a more than usual quantity of oats, as the behavior rather 
testified to want of appetite than denoted any positive dislike of the 
nourishment which was before the animal. 

Besides hay, corn is corhmonly used in this country as a food for 
horses. The corn of the English stable is almost confined to oats. In 
foreign lands various substances are employed. General, however, as 
the adoption of oats may be in this kingdom, few, very few persons, 
beyond the limits of the corn market, have any distinct notion concern- 
ing this kind of grain. With the vast majority an oat is an oat, and all 
oats are of one kind. In exceptional cases, gentlemen are partial to oats 
of some particular hue. Certain persons will purchase only a black oat; 
another class prefer a full golden tint, to distinguish the kind they favor ; 
while a few admire a whiteness of husk. Such differences, however, 
do not affect the grain ; the colors are limited to the chafi" — the kernels 
of all are of one tint. 

The kernel, or the mealy substance of oats, differs in each variety of 
corn. One sample shall be thick in the husk, and possessed of a super- 
abundance of beard ; but the body of such corn will be narrow, also of 
contrasting sizes and of various colors. 

The inferior specimens are commonly mixed with other seeds, with 
pieces of stick and portions of straw, as well as sometimes adulterated 
by the presence of other grain. These oats may impart a saltish flavor 



180 



FOOD. 



to the taste; likewise they may have a faint, smoky, or fusty odor. Such 
corn seldom weighs more than twenty -two pounds to the bushel. 





KONISBERG OATS. 



PETERSBURG OATS. 



Another sample, of a different country, will rattle briskly as it is 
poured from the bulk into the palm. Such has a clean aspect and 
almost a metallic luster. It is full or plump, being positively beardless, 
and exhibits no more husk than is needed to surround the kernel of such 
grain. When attentively scrutinized, perhaps no specimen of oats will 
be found to be all of one size; but no very striking inequalities will 
catch the attention, when the better sort are viewed. These are entirely 
tasteless ; and do not even suggest the possibility of a scent appertain- 
ing to them. Corn of this quality is too valuable not to be carefully 
harvested ; consequently the hardest pressure of the thumb nail leaves 
no indentation ; while the kernel rather chips than tears asunder, when 
compressed between the teeth. 





BEST SCOTCH OATS. 



ENGLISH OATS, FROM CANADIAN SEED. 



The absence of beard, however, is not an invariable sign of excel- 
lence : if the weight per bushel be heavy, this feature should not be too 
strongly insisted upon. Some good com is distinguished by a greater 
length of husk than is requisite simply to surround the kernel ; but such 



FOOD. 



181 



atones for this peculiarity by the bulk of the grain. It is true that a 
sample of this kind seldom attains to the highest weight, and the pur- 
chaser loses somewhat by an excess of chaff. 





NEW IRISH FEED OATS. 



FIRST CLASS SWEDES. 



Yet in England, which country on the continent is esteemed to be a 
land of horses, very few stables are supplied with other grain than that 
of an inferior description. The better kind is bought by the miller and 
the trainer of racers or hunters. The inferiority of most corn, however, 
seems not to disturb domestic tranquillity. The majority of proprietors 
open an account with some neighboring chandler, and the groom is 
empowered to fetch the provender, which the horses are supposed to 
consume. Dealers in grain do not enjoy unsullied reputations. It is a 
custom with gi'ooms to exact ten or five per cent, on all the master's 
bills which refer to the stable. The gentleman, therefore, always pur- 
chases his fodder very dearly, where such an arrangement exists. 

Oats should never be bought by measurement, but should invariably 
be purchased by weight. A prime sample will weigh forty-eight pounds 
to the bushel ; whereas the author has heard of, although he does not 
pretend to have seen, oats so very light that the same bulk was only 
equivalent to sixteen pounds. However, a grain which is professed 
merely to reach twenty-two pounds is to be met with in every market. 

The difference of w^eight should be more than accompanied by an 
equivalent diminution of price : because a prime oat of forty-eight 
pounds will yield thirty-six pounds of pure grain, after the chaff has 
been removed. A fair oat gives half its weight of kernel ; but an ex- 
cellent sample will afford three-quarters of its entire weight in prime 
nutritious substance; whereas a poor specimen will produce no more 
than eight pounds of clean corn to the bushel measure ! 

Consequently, supposing a choice sample to sell for thirty-six shil- 
/ings, the inferior article can be worth only eight shillings the quarter ; 
for no man can esteem the husk as a food suitable for any living creat- 



182 FOOD. 

ure, nor vv^ould any person purchase such utter refuse, even at the frac- 
tion of a penny per pound. Cheapness, in such particulars, is therefore 
very far from the truest economy. 

Most chandlers do not keep the better specimens of oats. With the 
majority, thirty-six pounds is about the prime standard. As a proof of 
the correctness of the above assertion, the author, a few months ago, 
visited a friend, and being grieved to see that the best price was paid 
for an inferior oat, he purposed to call on all the neighboring dealers in 
corn, inquiring for grain of only forty pounds weight. Even this the 
writer was unable to obtain — all naming thirty-six pounds as the gravity 
of the highest article which they had in stock. The .gentleman, there- 
fore, who determines to procure only the choicest corn, must purchase 
of some large and respectable retail dealer. Should any chandler assert 
the impossibility of his obtaining the heavier kind of grain, let the gen- 
tleman at once seek some tradesman who has dealings at the Corn 
Exchange, where any quantity of any species of grain can at all times 
be secured, without further trouble than usually attends upon business 
transactions. 




HEAVY AND LIGHT OATS AS EACH LIES IN THE MEASURE. 

The animal is doubly defrauded where poor corn is served out by 
measure. The grain, in the first place, contains less nourishment; in 
the next place, the solid bulk is not the same ; because the husks not 
only occupy more space, for, by acting as props to one another, fre- 
quently clear cavities are formed. Therefore, were the light and the 
heavy corns, required to fill a given measure, to be counted, probably 
no vast difference would be discovered in their number. The reader 
must, however, himself determine how far it is possible for a horse to 
be cheated, without the master sufi'ering from the fraud in its effect. 

Further injury is inflicted by permitting the quadruped to consume 
only an inferior corn. Whoever will carefully examine the drawings of 
oats given in the present division of the book, can hardly fail to remark 
that the denuded kernels appear of a size disproportioned to that repre- 
sented as the dimensions of the perfect grain. The microscope makes 
plain the source of this apparent disparity. The epidermis or the 
covering of the kernel is coated with numerous fine hairs, which are too 
small to be perceptible to the imaidcd vision. These hairs are closely 



FOOD. 



183 



compressed when surrounded by the natural envelope; but when re- 
leased from the husk, the hairs expand, and thus occasion the naked eye 
to behold something far too large for the case from which it has re- 
cently been released. 




\ J - 

A MAGNIFIED ENGLISH OAT. 



In the inferior sorts, the hairs are rather longer, and likewise more 
numerous, than in the better kind of corn ; while, of course, the covering, 
according to the smallness of the grain, becomes serious, when regarded 
as a proportionate weight of the whole. These diminutive hairs are 
perfectly indigestible and entirely indestructible when taken into the 
stomach. The peristaltic action releases them from the surface of the 
kernel ; being set free, they are frequently felted together by the moist- 
ure and rolling motion of the stomach. However small the hairs may 
be separately, nevertheless by their union they form masses of immense 
size, provoking such serious impactment as often leads to a terrible and 




ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE OAT HAIR CALCULUS. COPIED FROM THE INTERESTINQ WORK ON CONCRETIONS, 
BY PROFESSOR MORTON. 

1. A section of an Oat Hair Calculus. 2. Magnified hairs, mixed with crystals of the phosphates. 
3. Hairs, further magnified. 4. Hairs, so enlarged as to display their bulbous insertions and curved 
forms. 



a fatal issue. A further reason, therefore, exists for employing good 
grain in the possibility of such accumulations, the true nature of which 



184 



FOOD. 



was first pointed out by Professor Morton, and by that learned gentle- 
man these concretions were appropriately designated Oat Hair Calculi. 

It has long been known that digestion is promoted by crushing the 
corn before placing it in the manger. This custom, as a part of the 
proper process, cannot be too highly commended. But careless horse 
owners sometimes purchase the stable provender in a crushed state, or 
send to have this process performed elsewhere than on their own prem- 
ises. Such habits are strongly objected to ; the horse is surrounded by 
so much dishonesty, that a prudent man is not justified in trusting the 
animal's food to the possibility of exchange or of adulteration. 

To convey to the reader a definite notion of the very different charac- 
ters impressed upon various samples of oats, the following illustrations 
of a few of those which were kindly supplied by a wholesale firm, trans- 
acting business at the Corn Exchange, are here presented. 





IRISH OATS. BLEACHED. 



SCOTCH OATS. SECOND QUALITY. 





KILN-DRIED DANISH OATS. 



FINLAND BLACK OATS. 



A horse owner should invariably have all corn crushed and chaff cut 
on his premises. The necessary machines are well known, and will soon 
repay their cost. New grain Avill not break or crush, but will rather 
leave the mill flattened or bruised. Corn of this description is easily 
told by its being soft and yielding; also by its retaining the mark made 



FOOD. 



185 



by the pressure of the thumb nail. Should that test not be perfectly 
satisfactory, a convincing proof is soon obtained by placing the suspected 
grain between the teeth. A sound oat should be dry and hard: it 
should almost chip asunder, and not be torn or broken into pieces by 
compression. In the autumn months, great care is needed to procure 
sound corn ; the non-professional purchaser is, perhaps, best protected, 
when he deals for such an article with responsible trades-people, who, in 
their business, have a character to sacrifice. 




E>'GU8H FEED. 



It is a custom to expel the moisture from new grain by drying it in a 
kiln. It is thereby, in some degree, improved ; but it cannot be said to 
be rendered as wholesome as sound corn, hardened by the natural pro- 
cess. Moreover, oats badly harvested or damaged by wet are frequently 
placed in the kiln, where they are exposed to the sulphur, in order to 
change or amend their color. The husks, however, at the conclusion of 
the process, are seldom all of one tint. If closely examined, indications 
of the original defect may be discovered on some grains, while others 
will be of an unnatural whiteness. Kiln-dried oats sometimes betray a 
shriveled aspect on that part which is near to the beard, such puckering 
being occasioned by the sudden expulsion of much dampness from the 
interior. The best test, however, is the rapid rubbing of the sample 
between the palms of the heated hands; when, should sulphur have 
been employed, its peculiar odor will be developed. 

The author has been thus careful in describing the signs which 
declare the presence of sulphur, because that mineral, although much 
employed by ordinary farriers, can occasion the most terrible belly-ache, 
gripes, fret, or spasms. This affection is one of the most fearful to which 
the horse is subject, and is the more to be dreaded, as it too often leads 
to other complications. Perhaps a greater number of animals annually 
perish through causes resulting from spasms, than die under any other 
equine ailment. 



186 



FOOD. 



Healthy corn, having been bruised, is not even then properly prepared 
for the equine digestion. The stomach of the horse is a delicate mem- 
braneous sac, which is easily perforated or ruptui-ed. It has no provi- 
sion suited to digest hard corn, neither are the teeth of the animal fitted 
to masticate so resistant a substance. Unlike the similar organs in man, 
the equine tooth is destined to wear by attrition, and anything calculated 
to hasten that process equally diminished the existence of the animal. 
The inappropriateness of the stable and its food must be the reason why 
English horses are so lamentably short lived. The quadruped was, ac- 
cording to the briefest calculation, designed to exist for forty years ; but 
the majority in this country cease to breathe before they attain the sixth 
birthday. How much money is thereby sacrificed ! How much bar- 
barity is by this lamentable mortality proved to exist ! What a terrible 
amount of unmerited abuse must be yearly perpetrated ! What a lack 
of appreciation of the Creator's goodness is exemplified by the cruelty 
which thus shortens the duration of His choicest gift to the human 
race ! 

Prior to the grain being placed before the horse, it should be softened. 
Where a building is heated by steam, the accomplishment of this would 
always be at command. Let each feed of corn and every portion of hay, 
whether cut into chaff or not, be cooked by being exposed to the action 
of the vapor for a couple of hours. Moisture, in the form of steam, is 




APPARATUS FOE PREPARING HOP.SES' FOOD. 

aa. Pipes, having stop-cocks to regulate the steam and to allow it to circulate when the boiler is not 
enipldyed. 
b &, 6 6. An iron pot, having a close-fitting lid, but pierced to admit the steam pipes, 
cc. A shifting interior case, made with a perforated bottom. 

dd. A layer of straw or of hay to prevent the crushed grain clogging the openings. 
eee. The broken corn undergoing the process of being prepared. 
f. A small tap to drain ofT the condensed fluid. 



known to be very penetrating; and the ingredients of the manger, when 
thus-prepared, are always more relished than in the raw condition, while 
the liquid which drains from the provender will prove a highly grateful 
and a most nutritious beverage to the tired quadruped. 

Hard substances taken into the stomach of a horse are well known to 



FOOD. 187 

derange the animal's system — a fact which has long been proved to the 
horse-copers and other rogues who live by imposition. A pound of shot 
will, for a time, conceal the peculiar breathing characteristic of broken 
wind, though this temporary escape from an outward symptom of dis- 
ease is often followed by disastrous consequences. Hard grain, if fired 
from a rifle, Avould prove no contemptible missile ; much of it is bolted 
by the quadruped before which it is cast, and consequently passes out 
of the body undigested. The actions of sparrow^s and the luxuriant 
green crops which often adorn the tops of dunghills are both evidences 
of the waste attending the ordinary mode of feeding. 

General, all but universal, as the employment of oats may be in this 
kingdom, very few of Her Britannic Majesty's subjects have the remotest 
idea of the use which this corn subserves in the animal economy. Drivers 
will stop, when proceeding upon long journeys, and order their nags large 
feeds of oats, to enable them to complete the distance, or, in other words, 
to aid the muscular power. Corn, however, is now ascertained to gen- 
erate only fat, which rather detracts from than favors the development 
of motor energy. It certainly sounds strangely, after the expenditure 
of millions of money, after ages of experience, and after the training of 
horses was thought to have been fostered into a science, to hear it 
broadly asserted that the purpose and end attained by the administra- 
tion of England's favorite feed for horses is totally mistaken ! Such, 
however, is the unvarnished truth ; the gallops or the sweats that fre- 
quently injure animals while in training are no more than the efforts of 
ignorance to remove those consequences which its own acts have occa- 
sioned. They are attempts to get rid of the fat, which the employment 
of much corn has naturally produced. 

Besides oats, however, beans are used in the best stables ; but there 
is much dispute as to the quantity which a horse can advantageously 
consume. The English field bean should always be hardened by age 




ENGLISH BEANS — A GOOD SAMPLE. 



before it is suited for the manger; even then, it should be prepared; for 
a substance which, when rattled in a measure, emits a sound like to that 
produced by so many pebbles striking one against the other, can hardly 
be in a condition proper for comminution between most sensitive and 
highly-organized members. They should be crushed and subjected to 



188 



FOOD. 



the action of steam, which will, in a couple of hours, remove the objec- 
tionable quality without reducing them to a watery mass. 

Horse beans, as grown in England, however, are very coarse and 
astringent substances. No wonder if the large employment of such pro- 
duce is found to act upon the bowels ; surprise should be expressed if so 




ENGLISH BEANS — A BAD SAMPLE. 



harsh a food could be consumed without inducing constipation. The 
Egyptian bean, nevertheless, is free from such objectionable properties, 




EGYPTIAN BEANS — A GOOD SAMPLE. 



being mild and sweet. The author thinks a larger quantity of this 
crushed and moistened seed might be with benefit presented to the ani- 
mal. As at present imported, however, it is very imperfectly harvested 
Most samples exhibit the shriveled and the discolored skin, which de- 




EGTPTIAN BEANS — A BAD SAMPLE. 



notes the sickle was resorted to befoi'e the plant was matured — an error 
perfectly inexcusable in a climate which is for nine months of the year 
free from rain. 

Might not some sound Egyptian beans be procured ; from these could 
not a milder and better species of bean be raised in this country ? Tiie 



FOOD. 189 

field pea is open to tlie same condemnation ; but field peas are not gen- 
erally employed in stables. Those used for horses are small and white, 
of foreign growth, and quite unobjectionable. Tares are given only to 
farm teams ; but if this plant possesses only a tithe part of those virtues 
for which it is accredited, its employment might be advantageously ex- 
tended. Why should hay be made only of grass which, though admirable 
sustenance for the bovine tribe, evidently is not equally suited to the 
equine species ? The dropsy of the abdomen and legs it induces in nags, 
together with the foulness of coat which it engenders, arc perhaps the 
best evidence of the injury that attends the long employment of green 
grass, or even of hay, as a solitary sustenance. 

Might not beans, peas, and other leguminous substances be sown 
broadcast, and mown when in flower ? Hay thus produced would be 
of all value in the stable, because grass, like corn, whether exhibited 
green or dry, simply induces fat; whereas leguminous plants all favor 
the development of muscular fiber or support the strength of the body. 
Such hay might be charged a little higher ; but then its feeding value 
and its worth as a promoter of condition would far more than recompense 
any extra money at which it might be charged. 

It may be asked why, if hay produces fat, are the horses of the poor 
so lamentably lean, since such quadrupeds receive little else than hay to 
sustain them ? The reasons are numerous. The hay such horses obtain 
is not often of a good quality; and it is to be feared the stuff is not, 
frequently, presented in sufficient quantity to promote obesity. Besides, 
this substance leaves the muscular power unrefreshed. The frame being 
exhausted by a life passed in exertion, the body's weakness efi'ectually 
counteracts all tendency to fatten. 




A MAG.NIIIED MUSTY OAT. 



Beans are not known to be much exposed to deterioration ; but oats 
are liable to an affection of the epidermis or of the skin, which causes 
them to be covered with little granules of a dark color, which the mi- 
croscope discovers to be fungoid growths resembling a species of very 
minute toadstools. Corn, when in this condition, is readily recognized 
by a very powerful musty smell ; and the grain, of course, is not adapted 



190 



FOOD. 



to nourish any animal. Musty provender is supposed to engender worms 
and other unpleasantnesses ; but the author is disposed to attribute the 
production of the parasites to a want of resistance in the system, which 
may be inherited, or spring from a sickly state of the body, or which may 
be produced by the consumption of unwholesome diet. 

Another advantage which is attendant on the employment of heat 
and moisture is that, by its operation, the unwholesome nature of food, 
if not absolutely corrected, is greatly ameliorated. The horse proprietor 
is thus, in some measure, protected from those accidents to which every 
stable is liable where a stud-groom does not preside over the establish- 
ment, or where the owner is not remarkable for activity. The benefit 
resulting from heat may, in a certain measure, be secured where no 
steaming apparatus exists ; but then two stout closely-shutting boxes of 
galvanized iron and a scoop, together with a large kettle, are required. 




MACERATING BOX AND SCOOP. 



The food is placed in one of the receptacles ; then so much boiling 
water should be poured upon it as experience has ascertained will be 
entirely absorbed. This done, the lid is closed, and the confined steam 
will partially cook the provender. The need for two boxes is to allow 
the hay, chaff, or grain to remain for a longer period subjected to the 
moisture, so that these substances may be thoroughly softened. This, 
however, is a more troublesome method, and the mode does not equal, 
in its results, the employment of steam where the vapor can be com- 
manded ; but, whichever practice is adopted, the following regulations 
should always be observed when the horses are fed. 

The mangers intended for the reception of softened provender must 
be of a peculiar construction. The feeding compartment should possess 
a lid, which may be let down when the manger is removed. This last 
should always be taken out of the stable after it has been emptied ; the 
interior should, at each removal, be thoroughly cleansed. The form of 



FOOD. 



191 



the receptacle should, in some measure, resemble a large pudding dish, 
and should offer no sharp angles, where the moist provender may ac- 
cumulate and turn unpleasantly acid. A broad rim should surround the 
hollow, into which rim should be let two movable handles, the use of 
which is to expedite the manger being carried from place to place. The 
substance ought to consist of galvanized iron, but the interior may ad- 
vantageously be coated with enamel. 




IRON DISH OB MOVADLE M.INGER TOR HORSES' FOOD. 



Such an article, when placed in the wooden frame adapted to receive 
it, would be supported by its rim and kept by its own weight in the 
proper situation. When taken thence, it ought to be carried to the 




OmNO OUT THE MACERATED FOOD. 



pump and cleansed, after which it is lodged in the provender house. 
When feeding time comes round, two helpers or stable-boys wheel two 



192 



FOOD 



barrows to the door of the buildmg and there wait. The head groom, 
attended by two others, enters the room, and with the scoop serves out 
the provender, each groom by turns holding a manger to be filled. 

As the basins are loaded, these are arranged on the barrows ; when 
the macerating box has been emptied, the grooms and helpers proceed 
upon their rounds. As each barrow stops before a door, the man who 
wheels it goes to the outside of the building, and, pulling a string, 
thereby raises the lid of the manger. He next proceeds to the entrance, 
and, having undone the fastenings, stands ready to admit the groom on 
his approach. This being done, the lower half is closed, and only 
opened again to allow of the groom's egress. 




CARRYING THE FOOD ROUND TO THE STABLES. 



Where a horse, of a known restless or ravenous habit, is confined, an 
external slide affords the means of supplying food. The manger, in such 
a box, should be replaced after it has been cleansed; for, as it is then 
empty, the food cannot be lost in consequence of the impatient hunger 
or of the nervousness of the animal. When the feeding hour comes 
round, the lid of the receptacle having been raised by pulling at the 
string, the shutter is lifted up and the provender shot through the open 
space. The steamed oats and chaff are not absolutely Avet. The con- 
dition is rather less sticky than the same bulk of brewers' grains. The 
substance, therefore, would readily fall down into the manger; but, as 
this mode necessitates that the incline be constantly scraped and cleaned, 



FOOD. 193 

it is not, because extra trouble is enforced by it, recommended for general 
adoption. 

Thus, witliout that excitement, delay, and ill humor which too fre- 
quently distinguishes feeding time in large establishments, each horse 
may be speedily supphed. All needed is a little drilling by the head 
groom, so each man may understand his office : that when fulfilling it, 
no one may obstruct the path of his fellow. The steaming or macera- 
tion of food may, by certain readers, be imagined to have originated 
in a desire to write pretty about horses. The author denies such a 
motive. Besides, the plan has no pretense to originality. It has for 
many years been practiced : but not in high-class stables. The writer, 
however, had an inducement, in truth, to recommend its general adop- 
tion, and, therefore, to some portion of the implied charge he may plead 
"guilty." 

All horse owners bitterly complain of the expense involved in the 
support of an animal. Nor is this surprising, when it is considered that 
one-half of its provender passes through the body of the animal undi- 
gested, being no more than so much material literally wasted ; while a 
great portion of the remainder, though dearly purchased, is absolutely 
without nutriment. As a matter of economy, nothing should be placed 
in the manger which is not fit to be appropriated, or is not proper to 
nourish the strength. Such is the purpose of food: that is not food 
which does not feed, although, like the clay balls of the American Indian, 
it may be swallowed under the promptings of appetite ; for when received 
into the stomach, like the substance alluded to, it probably will engender 
disorder. 

Improper articles, therefore, presented as food, are in a double sense 
extravagant. In the first place, they do not sustain the life; in the 
second place, they entail the expense and loss of service which are 
inseparable from disease. Whether with horse or with man, every- 
thing offered as food should do more than merely appease the appetite. 
Unless it also uphold the vigor, devouring it is to waste the substance; 
and whatever adapts provender to the requirements of the digestion, 
cannot in reason be esteemed either extravagant or unnecessary. Of 
course, prepared food entails trouble. It cannot be forked into a rack 
or tossed into a manger speedily and without soil to the garments. 
There are plenty of reasons why grooms should cling to "hard meat;" 
and why this class of servants should object to prepared fodder. 

Grooms, however, as generally treated, are most exceptionable domes- 
tics. Other servants are occupied throughout the day. The stable 
attendant turns the key upon the day's duties at six o'clock in the 
evening. He is the most wasteful and costly of all the servants in or 

13 



194 FOOD. 

about the house. He wastes even that which Heaven has supplied in 
the greatest abundance. He wastes the air; since, to obtain warmth, 
he will not permit the horse to breathe other than atmosphere contami- 
nated by the creature's excretions. He wastes the quadruped's strength ; 
since he works it out of season, and is pleased to view the limbs, when 
not in action, "cribbed and confined" within the nai'row limits of a stall. 
He upholds every abuse. He is opposed to every improvement. The 
sum which a fashionable groom costs his master is not to be estimated 
by the money paid to the individual as wages. 

Hay, oats, and beans constitute the horse's daily sustenance. These 
articles are quickly measured out, and do not soil the hand which appor- 
tions them. No doubt the groom will resist any change in so convenient 
a diet ; but the subject, as it at present stands, concerns the liking of 
no person. It simply involves a moral duty. Nature has sent food in 
abundance and in variety. Is man justified, when he opposes nature's 
obvious intention ? When he first imprisons a life, and then dooms it to 
subsist for the period of its being on a monotony of provender, does he 
act rightly or wisely ? What motive can be urged strong enough to 
warrant the pigmy in placing his insignificance between the creature 
and the liberality of the Creator ? 

Horses are not confined to England. Elsewhere the quadrupeds thrive 
on other food than hay, oats, and beans. The Arab, which stands first 
among the tribe, and is by some writers recognized as the original of the 
species, thrives on barley and on chopped straw. The American breed 
rarely taste oats, being fed on Indian-corn ; as, likewise, are many ani- 
mals inhabiting the south of Germany. Damaged wheat is eaten by 
agricultural teams all over the world. Rye is given as a supporting 
diet, when long journeys are traveled in Russia. In India, the cavalry 
charger exists chiefly on a grain called "gram." In Ireland, the general 
feed is raw potatoes. In Iceland, dried fish is employed as provender; 
while during the needy period of the Crimean campaign, the English 
horses devoured the tails of their stable associates. 

England, however, can supply or can import all the articles enumer- 
ated. Why, therefore, are oats preferred as the fittest food for horses? 
The kernel of this grain is covered by a solid coat of chaff. That chaflf 
adds to the weight of the corn, and is charged to the purchaser as so 
much nutritious matter. It is not supporting; but it occupies space 
when first taken into the stomach. That space allows the dried kernels 
to swell without occasioning inconvenience to the animal ; for the same 
moisture which enlarges the oat, also softens the husk, and allows it to 
be compressed with little absolute force. 

As dry food, given separately, oats no doubt are the most wholesome 



FOOD. 195 

provender for horses. Barley, rye, or wheat, if dry, would require a pro- 
portion of chaff to be mixed with those grains, so as to render either of 
them safe. Few things are more common in agricultural districts, than 
for animals to be injured by eating the latter kind of food. Quadrupeds 
often break loose, and gorge upon wheat; when the cereal, swelling after 
it has been swallowed, not unseldom ruptures the stomach and destroys 
the life. All dried grain should be moistened before it is placed in the 
manger. When properly soaked, barley, wheat, or rye are more whole- 
some than oats. Mingled with chaff, they are quite as beneficial, even 
when admmistered in the dried state. They are, moreover, when re- 
garded in the view of weight for weight of nutriment, far cheaper than 
the vast majority of England's favorite provender. 

Might not the ship biscuit, which is now used only as a food for dogs, 
be profitably employed in the stable ? It contains no husk. Its surface 
is not surrounded by dangerous hairs. It is all nutriment ; and, being 
slightly moistened by the action of steam, would doubtless be consumed 
with avidity, after the first distaste, natural to timidity, had been over- 
come. This species of provender would be cheaper than the raw, hard, 
and unprepared grain, which might with advantage be superseded by 
cru.shed biscuit mingled with a proportion of chaff. 

The action of heat is well known to change the nature of corn, while 
fermentation converts the starch of the raw seed into sugar. Might not 
a coarse kind of bread be made for the stable ? This is no whim of the 
author's imagination. Such a plan is common throughout Germany, 
where it is not unusual to see a carter feeding himself and steed off the 
same loaf The groom might possibly resist such an innovation upon 
his rights and leisure ; but a better order of dependents could be found, 
to whom the extra labor would merely prove a pastime. 

Besides bread and biscuits, there are various roots which might prove 
very acceptable to a vegetable eater. The digestion of all such articles 
is promoted by the substances being cooked before they are presented. 
The fire extracts much of the water with which they all abound ; heat 
also, in some measure, arrests the tendency to ferment. Why should 
such simple and natural food be denied to the creature which nature has 
sent upon this earth with an appetite fitted to consume it ? There is 
ample room for choice in the list which has been indicated ; so far as 
experiment has hitherto tested the value of such articles of food for 
horses, results have been obtained which seem to say the change might 
be generally adopted without danger. 

A sameness of diet is known to derange the human stomach. Under 
such a system, the palate loses its reUsh, while a loathing is excited 
which destroys appetite. How often do grooms complain of certain 



196 FOOD. 

animals being bad feeders ! May not such disinclination foi* sustenance 
be no more than the disgust engendered by a constant absence of variety ? 
Is there any large stable in the kingdom where one or more quadrupeds 
-! are not equally notorious for being ravenous feeders ? The disinclination 
for the necessary sustenance and the morbid desire for an excess of nutri- 
ment are alike symptoms of deranged digestion. Some horses will devour 
large quantities of earth,* — stones, worms, and all. Other animals will, 
if not muzzled, consume the litter of their stalls, no matter how tainted 
or filthy it may be. Strange tastes and unnatural Jikings are not unfre- 
quently displayed by the inhabitants of the stable, among which, the 
instances cited are only the most common, all such whims being declara- 
tive of a diseased stomach. 

The stable, its management, its formation, and its food, do further 
injury than merely to derange the digestion. Such may be its primary 
effect; but the stomach is to the animal as the root is to the plant. 
Through it all the nourishment is absorbed. By its healthful operation, 
the trunk, limbs, and strength are maintained. The rootlets cannot be 
diseased without the remotest twigs drooping and withering. So the 
deranged digestion induced by the modern stable leads to those fearful 
results which render life valueless ; and which would terminate the 
existence, were the event not anticipated by the office of the knacker. 
Cribbing, weaving, quidding, surfeit, inflamed thorax, bowel complaints, 
broken wind, glanders, diseases of the legs and of the feet, with the ma- 
jority of those injuries which are complacently recognized as accidents, 
may all be directly traced to that domestication which assumes a right 
to dictate how a life shall exist ; the atmosphere it shall breathe ; the 
space it shall occupy ; and the substances it shall eat. Heaven, when 
this earth was first inhabited, did not create beings without investing 
them with rights, which man cannot abrogate at his convenience or set 
aside at his pleasure. 

Of late years a class of traders has sprung up who profess to sell 
"patent foods," or nostrums, which are to be cast into the manger with 
the corn. The economy and the marvelous effects of these secret prep- 
arations are loudly trumpeted ; and from the numbers who now deal in 
such articles, these persons evidently find many customers. The mix- 
tures consist of certain seeds and spices, which, in consequence of a 
relish being given to the monotony of manger diet, are eagerly de- 
voured. They may even stimulate a false appetite ; but, after a time, 
this effect will cease, and a loathing greater than the previous excite- 
ment will succeed. It is not, therefore, with surprise that the author 
hears of people, once very enthusiastic admirers of such additions, hav- 
ing, after some experience, relinquished these foreign aids to provender. 



FOOD. 19t 

After all, "patent foods" contain matter which is as old as the hills. 
Grooms and coachmen have, for a longer period than is to be reached by 
the memory of man, had a confiding faith in certain charms, or nostrums. 
Such innocent people have long held secrets for working wonders — 
either by improving the coat, promoting condition, or creating spirit, etc. 
These m3'steries were made up either as balls or powders. So general 
was this practice that certain veterinary surgeons kept particular articles 
solely to meet the demands of such customers. These ingredients, 
which were always retailed to ignorant people, late in the evening and 
with much secrecy, are, in very many cases, even to particulars, the 
same as are now the advertised "Blessings to Horse Owners." There 
is, however, this difference : such things are, at present, purchased by 
the proprietor, whei'eas they formerly were secretly procured by the 
servant. The master esteems it commendable in him to administer such 
stuffs to his animals; whereas, a few years ago, the retainer was as- 
suredly dismissed from his situation, if not punished, who was detected 
mixing any substance with the provender of his horses. 

With regard to quantity in the matter of diet. All animals are not 
of one size, neither have all horses the same capacity of stomach. It is 
usual to measure out so much corn as the allowance proper for a horse, 
and to toss the quantity into the manger, without paying any attention 
to the desires of the creature. Such a custom may be extremely con- 
venient ; but it is very wasteful. Horses differ quite as much as men do 
in their appetites. By the common practice, one animal receives more 
than it requires, while another gets less than satisfies its cravings. Some 
slight notice of the body's necessities should be insisted upon in those 
who pretend to comprehend the quadruped; and a master should in- 
struct the servant that a creature endowed with life cannot be justly 
regarded as a manufacturing machine. 

Then, as to the times of feeding. The horse is essentially a creature 
of the night. Man may shake up the straw and lock the stable door; 
but he does not, therefore, put the quadruped to sleep. Long hours of 
watchfulness are apt to generate habits of mischief, as well as lead to 
many indulgences which are no more than the results of want of em- 
ployment, or the absence of amusement. The solitary confinement, 
now popular in prisons, in workhouses, and in some schools, is evidently 
wrong in principle ; more especially wrong is it, when practiced upon 
children, as loneliness, acting upon immaturity of intelligence, invariably 
leads to an evil desire, which is, in penal prisons, spoken of as " bi*eak- 
ing out." 

The horse has to pass twelve hours of weary time awake, without 
food and without supervision. Why should not one feed, at least, be 



198 FOOD. 

given late at night? The present custom, of allowing the stable-man 
his time after six o'clock, is not beneficial to the servant ; nor is it 
advantageous to a master. It merely encourages habits which are 
expensive. Expensive habits are not commendable or innoxious, where 
the weekly income is reckoned by shillings. A little more of whole- 
some employment would greatly improve the stable-retainer. The man 
is now corrupt ; but those who suffer by his vices, expose him to that 
temptation which subverts the uprightness of his inclinations. After 
six, is a better hour for equine exercise than during the heat of the 
afternoon. Subsequent to the setting of the summer's sun, during the 
cool, moist time of twilight, the quadruped would delight in being 
abroad; but, during the hours when nature formed her creature to 
roam, man, for a servant's convenience, imprisons his slave ; and, 
having perverted every intent or purpose of its existence, complains 
aloud because the laws of Creation are not made subservient to his 
perversity ! 

Could society be rendered a trifle more sympathetic and a little less 
conceited, horses would largely benefit by such a change in the disposi- 
tions of their masters. But this cannot be with present thoughts and 
existing institutions. The modern age essentially delights in knowing ; 
it rather sneers at, than cultivates, feeling. England abounds in 
schools, and is thickly strewn with colleges. Education is much 
lauded; but the education at present given neglects the higher and 
the better part of the pupil's mind. Everywhere knowledge is incul- 
cated ; nowhere is feeling cultivated. Nay, in the majority of existing 
educational establishments, the sensations are blunted and the emotions 
suppressed. Yet to elevate the feelings of its followers, is the purpose 
and the object of Christianity. Reverends and Dignitaries preside over 
places where, under pretense of being properly trained, youths are un- 
christianized. Most young men quit their tutors with the knowledge 
quickened ; but where is the being who began life with the heart im- 
proved, or with the moral sense to guide him through the many obliga- 
tions he was newly called to discharge, upon his becoming a member of 
this world's society? The horse especially suffers under the conse- 
quences which result from the present evil tendency of the community. 
To talk of the feelings, the instincts, and the inclinations of the quad- 
ruped, is to earn a character for maudlin affectation. The populace in 
the public highways hourly stare at or carelessly pass spectacles which, 
were the general mind really educated to understand what is before it, 
should awaken the keenest commiseration ; but which are now viewed 
as sights that enliven the prospect. Whence is derived such hardness 
of heart? Whence springs such general and such a deep-rooted insen- 



FOOD. 199 

sibility? No man seems capable of interposing a voice of expostula- 
tion, when the streets display living and feeling flesh creeping toward 
its early grave ; when he beholds the animal driven slowly to deatb ; 
when he looks upon an animated being, so worn and so dejected that it 
is the last office of humanity to summon the knacker to end a hopeless 
misery. The existence of a Society, with two constables, poorly coun- 
terbalances a national display of spurs and of whips. The foremost 
humanitarian, so the skin be whole, can afford to gaze upon a lean and 
spiritless horse, tired beyond man's most exaggerated conception of 
fatigue, slowly creeping before some over-burdened cart, while the 
driver, whip in hand, adds his weight to the disproportionate load. 
Misery in front, brutality behind, and hard-heartedness around ; while 
a fellow-inhabitant of earth totters onward tO its death ! 

Yet, how universal is the lamentation about "the instability of the 
horse's health," and "the uncertainty of equine lifel" Knowing what 
stables are, and having learned the air, the food, and the exercise 
allowed to maintain a horse's existence, is there any just occasion for 
appealing to sympathy, because a life, maltreated in every essential, 
generally droops before the fate which abuse provoked ? Forced into 
early toil ; never seen abroad without the goad by its side ; worked to 
the point of convenience, and nourished according to the dictates of 
economy, — is it wonderful that the majority of horses perish before 
their youth is matured? Is it not rather a justifiable reason for sur- 
prise that a country should boast of its morality, should exalt its civili- 
zation, should vaunt its Christian feeling — and, nevertheless, that its 
inhabitants should tacitly combine to practice the grossest inhumanity 
upon the meekest type of earthly sensibility ? 



CHAPTER YL 

THE EVILS WHICH ARE OCCASIONED BY MODERN STABLES. 

Those gentlemen who have deeply studied such subjects, assert that 
man is incapable of originating a single idea. Certainly an intelligent 
being would not have been required to originate anything if, when in- 
tending to confine an active animal, he had been expected to credit the 
joyous creature with the common attributes of life. It could have 
evinced no excessive servility if, before the building was raised for such 
a purpose, nature and her requirements had been, in some slight meas- 
ure, considered. 

It obviously is folly for mortal pride to contend against those ordiniza- 
tions which govern the universe. However, in the case of exercising 
power over the horse, centuries of defeat and ages of loss seem incapable 
of causing mankind to rehnquish a hopeless struggle. The strife has 
been going forward almost from the commencement of time ; neverthe- 
less, human beings, though always beaten, press onward to perpetuate 
the contest. Tbey scorn to retreat, and will suffer rather than own a 
victor ; they will not, to make an advantageous peace, desert a silly cus- 
tom or discard an ancient usage. They can sustain punishment ; they 
can endure chastisement; but, like land crabs, when once upon the 
march, they cannot deviate from the line which they have adopted. 
They can abuse the master, but they cannot listen to the instructor. 
"Nature," men exclaim in chorus, "is very stubborn." "Horse prop- 
erty," respond another gang of culpables, "is particularly hazardous !" 

All this noise, however, might at any moment be avoided, would the 
human race only stoop to employ a little reflection. Would man not 
fight quite so obstinately, but merely think over the cause of combat, 
he might possibly be a gainer in happiness as well as in pocket. Could 
he only condescend to admit the horse is a living creature, he would 
take a step toward his recognition of the truth, because a fact would 
have been acknowledged. This being granted, then let mortals, in their 
collective capacity, decide in what the lowest proof of life — mere animal 
existence — does prominently consist. 

It does not require any vast expenditure of thought to discover that 
(200) 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 201 

life is action; "to be," is synonymous with "to do;" therefore it is a 
sheer necessity of existence that an animated being must be doing some- 
thing. Such -is the primary consequence of existence. Thus, to breathe 
and to move, imply one act; since, if the lungs cease to dilate, respira- 
tion immediately terminates, and, with it, animation comes to an end 
Yet it remained for mortal perversity to rebuke the first principle of estab- 
lished philosophy, when stables were built in which a breathing animal 
was to be treated as it were an inanimate chattel. 

Nature, like a kind mother, is to this day endeavoring to teach her 
wayward children a plain truth, which they may hourly behold enforced 
by visible examples. The willful brood appears to be in no hurry to 
learn. Man still treats the horse as though he honored the quadruped 
by enslaving it, and ennobled a life by conferring upon the animal the 
title of his servant. He acts as though, by such conduct, sufficient rea- 
son was exhibited why he should oblige the creature to resign its instincts 
and relinquish its desires. 

The equine race, when in a wild state, are gregarious, or congregate 
in herds. Man captures such a quadruped and places it in a stable, 
built to enforce the extreme of solitary confinement. The plain is the 
natural abode of the herd ; on their speed depends both their pleasure 
and their safety. Man ties the domesticated horse to a manger, and 
pays a groom to enforce absolute stagnation upon innate activity. The 
"panting steed" is the most timid of living beings. Man insists the 
charger is possessed of extraordinary courage ; he declares it delights in 
the tumult of battle ; and he esteems it a glorious achievement to brutally 
coerce the timorous sensibility. The mild-eyed horse is, perhaps, the 
most simple of all the breathing beauties which adorn a wondrous world. 
Man declares all of the gentle breed have dangerous propensities, and 
are most inherently vicious. 

Before subjugation, the creature fed off the surface of the earth. Man 
builds a house specially designed for the captive, in which the corn is 
placed on a level with the chest, and the hay is stationed as high up as 
the head. The animal is gifted with affections ; it longs to gratify their 
promptings ; it yearns for something upon which its abundant love may 
gush forth, — a fellow-prisoner — a goat — a dog — a cat — a fowl ; no matter 
what, so it be some living object on which may be lavished that excess 
of tenderness which, confined to its own breast, renders being miserable 
Man esteems it his primary duty to clear the stable of all possible com- 
panionship ; but the creature which would rejoice, were it only permitted 
to worship its enslaver, he rarely approaches without a loud voice, a 
harsh word, or a harsher blow announcing his presence to the captive. 

The inhabitant of such a prison, a domesticated horse miserably drags 



202 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

through a shortened life, under human protection. The nearest approach 
it can make to freedom is its period of exhausting labor. It always 
rejoices to quit its confinement; but, enfeebled by imprisonment, and 
subservient to man's exactions, it ever gladly returns to the place of its 
sorrow. In proportion as its limbs are finely made and its actions are 
graceful is it prized. It is never esteemed for its instincts or credited 
with intelligence. It lives in so limited a space that, in comparison with 
the dimensions of its abode, a man in a sentry-box dwells in a mansion ; 
or a lion in a cage roams over a domain. A reasonable and an intelli- 
gent being commands his hoa'se should be fastened to such a spot, and 
supposes that a living organism is to endure the confinement which does 
not permit the body to turn round ; that animated functions are to exist 
where most ordinary exercises are rendered impossible : nevertheless, he 
anticipates the creature will appear bounding with health in answer to 
his requirements. 

To be sure, the prisoner, although its head be fastened, (a restraint 
not imposed upon the most savage of carnivorous beasts,) is permitted 
now to bear upon one leg, and then to change it for the other. It may 
perhaps lie down or stand up, without provoking chastisement Neither 
head nor tail are forbid a proper degree of motion. But at this point 
all indulgence is exhausted. It is tied to a rope two yards in length ; 
but it may not go even to the extent of its tether; neither may it move 
close up to the manger; both acts are equally unpardonable : a p)roperiy 
behaved animal should stand quietly in the center of its compartment, 
and always remain there when not lying down. 

It is beaten if its head be raised just to peep over the paling, to ex- 
change a rub of the nose and to give, as well as accept, a warm stream 
of fragrant breath to and from its nearest fellow-misery. It must taste 
the full flavor of its captivity : no trivial act may distract attention from 
the horror of its position. It must lie down where it stands ; and stand 
where it laid down. It must not display the grace and ease of motion 
with which it has been endowed ; nor must it indulge the kindly feelings 
Providence has gifted it with. To exert the faculties which the All- 
wise has planted in a beautiful body, man regards as evidence of its 
vicious disposition; though it has yet to be demonstrated that nature 
ever bestows any quality without an intention that the gift should be 
actively employed. 

The feelings of the master are more than sympathized in by the groom. 
A servant's pride always induces him to exaggerate both the virtues and 
the vices of his employer. What in the superior is a mere anticipation, 
which gratifies when it becomes realized, in the bosom of the dependent 
swells to a positive demand, compliance with which it is noble, at every 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 203 

hazard, to insist upon. The man, therefore, permits the cat to pur; 
but among the horses lie is resolved to enforce the extreme of quietude. 

The menial does not inquire whether an exquisite adaptation of sight, 
so as to inspect the minutest particle and to view the most distant ob- 
ject ; whether a sensibility of hearing, to which movements are audible, 
when to the duller perceptions of the proprietor no sound vibrates on 
the air; whether a keenness of scent which can appreciate qualities in 
substances that to human sense are devoid of odor; or whether that 
fleetness of motion, which the Creator permitted as a protection, the 
ease of which machinery, when urged over common roads, has failed to 
rival, — the servant does not inquire whether such attributes were given 
by nature only to be fastened by the head, or to be confined within a 
space in which absolute stagnation must ultimately induce bodily inca- 
pacity. For nature's intentions the groom cares nothing. "He has his 
doty to discharge and he will do it ! Master wishes the osses to be kept 
quiet on a arternoon ; and he's the chap as will see the guv'nor is not 
disappointed!" ^ 

Such a doom can alone be varied by the hours of labor and the periods 
of feeding. To the animal thus surrounded, recreation is impossible, 
and its lodging is so small that bodily ease is unattainable. Yet the 
horse is kept for the use of its limbs; those who have observed the 
quadruped canter round the field into which it has been newly loosed, 
know that enjoyment is not incompatible with its existence. No 
pleasure, however, can be permitted within the stable. There, the 
slightest rustle or the gentlest indication of motion is jealously noted. 
Most equestrians like their quadrupeds to be still after feeding ; because 
perfect quietude is supposed to promote digestion and to encourage thrift 
among the horses. The groom loves silence, because, to his mind, it is 
so nice and so respectable. Besides, when no sound disturbs the mo- 
notony of the building, the groom can luxuriate in the sense of absolute 
idleness — a feeling which most servants recognize and enjoy. If any 
sound interferes with the afternoon's luxury, a harsh and taunting shout 
rebukes the inconsiderate disturber. " Now ! Then 1 There 1 What 
ails you ?" 

The dreaded accents of the tyrant's voice may, for a space, banish the 
oppression of captivity. The animals, under the influence of newly 
awakened terror, may be enabled to shrink into absolute silence ; but, as 
the fear fades, the full reality of their position cannot otherwise than be 
felt in all its horrors. Fed upon stimulating food, how their spirits must 
languish, and how poignantly the aching limbs must suggest those 
pleasures there is no prospect of the prisoners ever again enjoying ! 
Every little incident is seized upon with an eagerness which attests the 



204 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



prevalence of Utter despair. Should a visitor enter the building, every 
head is raised and every eye is turned toward the welcome intruder. 




A STRANTIEE HAS ENTERED TUB STABLE. 



The universal bustle which follows his appearance bespeaks how the 
lucky arrival has allowed the limbs to be stretched and the positions to 
be altered. For a moment or two, the straw is in audible commotion, 
while the sinkers, or blocks fastening the collar reins, may knock against 
the mangers, and the noise elicits no angry remonstrance. 

But as joy hailed his appearance, so does the dullness deepen on the 

stranger's departure. From that 
moment, any relaxation becomes 
a fault. All pastime is unlawful ; 
the most innocent amusement 
must be practiced silently and in 
secret. Certain animals, however, 
try to get through the long hours 
of enforced idleness by quietly 
nibbling at the topmost rail of the 
manger. Large portions of tough 
wood are often removed after this 
fashion; and to him who can 
rightly interpret signs, a thick 
post bitten away, fiber by fiber, will present melancholy evidence of that 
longing for employment which could induce so great a waste of per- 
severance ; for animals are naturally great economists of labor. 

Other prisoners will endeavor to cheat the time by licking their 
mangers, apparently in the hope that some stray grain of corn may have 




iaBB]J[>'G THE WOOD-WORK. 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 205 

escaped previous attention. The soft tongue of the horse, passed over 
the hardened surface of the wood, occasions no noise. Often a few 
grains will have lodged in the corners; then the effort to displace these 
affords a long game. Others, from want of something to do, or from 
finding impure air and inactivity do not, in accordance with the general 
doctrine, promote equine digestion, learn "to crib;" a few, from the 
operation of the like causes, become perfect as "wind suckers." All 
"speed the weary hours" as they best can; and many heads are turned 
round to discover if it be feeding time again ; not that they are hungry, 
but eating is an occupation, and they sadly wish for some employment. 

Certain quadrupeds, under these circumstances, adopt a habit, which 
is the more remarkable because hours of tedium have generated the like 
indulgence in human beings. Mortals, when compelled to remain sta- 
tionary, and forced to preserve silence, often strive to kill time by rock- 
ing to and fro, or by "see-sawing" their bodies. Such a pitiable excuse 
for amusement is very common among the little people whose undevel- 
oped limbs are perched on high forms, and in whose hands are fixed very 
uninteresting primers, from which the infant mind Avanders into vacuity 
during the hours of imprisonment Avhich occur in those abominations 
termed "Preparatory Schools." The horse, also, when forbidden the 
pleasures in which nature formed it to delight, will move its head me- 
thodically from one side of its stall to the other, and will continue thus 
engaged for hours together. 

So exciting a pastime, most sane people might deem to be harmless 
enough. It interferes with nobody ; if it can amuse the solitude of the 
creature, it should certainly excite no person besides. But in the arbi- 
trary notions of rectitude entertained within the stable, such a very sim- 
ple custom is punished as a positive "vice." A horse which "see-saws" 
is said "to weave," and "weaving" is, by grooms, esteemed highly cul- 
pable. What the poor animal is "weaving," no one can point out; but, 
supposing an idle time to be so creditably employed, "weaving," though 
not a highly remunerative occupation, nevertheless does not usually 
entail penal severity upon the offender. But grooms act upon their own 
convictions, and disregard the general morals of mankind. When a 
monotonous sound, however gentle, but long continued and regularly 
repeated, falls upon the ear of watchful ignorance, the awful fact that 
one of the imprisoned is endeavoring to cheat its misery, causes the lash 
to be grasped ; the smart of a well-directed thong cuts short the melan- 
choly recreation, to inform the captive that its keeper is determined the 
fullest flavor and the most distant relish of the situation shall be silently 
appreciated. 

The imagination cannot picture a harder fate ! Man, under such a 



206 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

doom, would be relieved by insanity. The horse has few pleasures ; but 
nature makes all life suffer acutely when forced to continue inactive. 
The creature cannot seek occupation in what young ladies term accom- 
plishments. It has no power to consume its existence in silent study. 
Like all animal vitality, its delight is to do, and that is the very thing 
Avhich the groom insists it shall not perform. It can taste no other kind 
of pleasure. All created beings have some sphere of enjoyment. Ac- 
tivity constitutes that of the equine race ; but to prevent an innocent 
creature knowing the only happy sensation of which its nature is capable, 
the animal is placed in a compartment; tied up to a manger; while, 
behind, there sits a man who is specially engaged to chastise the smallest 
infraction of the prevailing silence of the prison-house. 

It remained for human perversity to conceive a life without a pastime, 
and vexatiously to impose this terrible fate upon the creature whose 
existence is devoted to man's service. When in the field, the horse is 
never idle. The only amusement of the simple animal lies in its per- 
petual occupation. What a despairing sorrow must therefore afflict such 
an existence, when dragging through its time under the fostering care 
of the enslaver ! Yet how proudly do some intellectual beings boast 
of their stables and of the ceaseless attention lavished on their studs I 
What is it this assiduity realizes to the creature on which it is ex- 
pended? Stagnation to the active, and solitude to the gregarious. 
Movement draws down punishment, as it were a fault. Any attempt to 
while away the tedious hours is esteemed "a vice;" sensation must be 
checked, and feeling, man insists, shall be suppressed. But who, among 
the m.illions of intellectual masters, sufficiently understands the quad- 
ruped over which they all usurp authority, to regard the huge bulk of 
that endurance as the embodiment of the acutest form of every possible 
earthly misery ? 

To ascertain how far the foregoing remarks are founded upon reason, 
let it be supposed that man and horse were to change places, though the 
two animals, not being alike on the score of comprehension, no trial 
could be exactly equitable. Restlessness of spirit is the invariable at- 
tendant upon weakness of intellect. The advantage must, therefore, 
preponderate upon that side where intelligence might lose a sense of self 
in the excitement of thought, or where reflection could be amused by 
passing observation. But, granting all advantages to the human being, 
be it imagined that, for a single week, man inhabited a stall; shut in 
from all society; standing on one spot by day, and lying there by night; 
having the same food and the water brought to him at regular intervals ; 
being obliged to make his meals without turning round; but, all the 
while, with his nose fastened close to a blank, white wall. After one 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 201 

single week of such probation, what does the reader conjecture would be 
the report delivered by the groom, who sat behind with the whip, ready 
to enforce silence ? In what respect, does imagination picture, would be 
the distinction between man and horse ? 

Stable propriety conceives that the dumb inhabitant of such a building 
is fitly occupied when gazing upon the whitened interior of its prison. 
It is barely possible that stable-men may think this a most engrossing 
amusement ; but there evidently exist horses which are so naturally per- 
verse as to imagine that sight was, by an all-wise Creator, bestowed for 
a more active purpose than to merely look at vacancy when at home, 
and to be blinded by blinkers when abroad. These are, generally, the 
new-comers. Colts, not thoroughly broken in, or quite inured to the 
customs of civilized equine existence, are such wayward creatures ! In 
their inexperience, they are too impatient; the first taste of captivity is 
apt to generate in them a desire to look around, or to gaze on the fellow- 
beings about them. 

Inspired by a feeling of dissatisfaction with the boards which human 
care has placed on either side of their compartment, these youngsters 
are likely to gratify the promptings of the moment, by rearing up and 
by lodging the forefeet within the manger. Their heads are thus raised 
above the limit of their partitions. Where the com is commonly thrown, 
the front hoofs now repose; and, as a consequence, the view instantly 
becomes more extended. The scene is novel ; the exalted quadruped 
can exchange glances with its companions. The prospect is pleasing, 
and the sensation it awakens is decidedly gratifying. But, unhappy 
creature ! While its eyes drink in delight, it cannot perceive the angered 
visage of the groom ; ribr can it even think of his existence, till the smart 
of a well-placed lash recalls the sufferer back to the hopelessness of that 
solitude, under submission to which it can alone hope to escape from 
positive torture. 

This grave offense, like too many human failings, is engendered by 
idleness. The offending animal was without occupation. Its spirit was 
sick with inactivity. Therefore, in despair, it indulged that forbidden 
gratification which most men in their own persons do not view as n;ierit- 
ing severe corporal punishment, or find to be a very stimulative amuse- 
ment, when, to kill time on a rainy day, they glance out of the windows 
of their apartments. The equine sin was, however, of no greater mag- 
nitude ; if it could, with strict justice, be said to attain to such lofty 
dimensions. The culpability, nevertheless, lay in an animal acting as 
though it had a right to use its own life for its selfish enjoyment. A 
horse obviously is the property of its master. The title to such property 
is absolute. The creature, consequently, has no right to act on its own 



208 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



authority ; and to do this, regardless of the peril incurred, is positively 
contemplative dishonesty, which merited the heaviest possible visitation 1 




A HORSE WITH THE FORELEGS IX THE MANGER. 



The altitude assumed, certainly, was not altogether safe. Mangers 
are built to merely uphold grain and chaff. Carpenters, in their col- 
lective capacity, are a knowing set, and are notorious for manufacturing 
articles of a strength merely proportioned to their uses. A heavy weight 
resting on fragile boards might have broken or have displaced some of 
them. In such a case, the animal having fallen through the opening, 
probably would, in its fright, have fractured a limb. The inside of its 
manger, assuredly, did not offer a secure foundation for a steed to stand 
upon; but, when tracing causes, we are bound to inquire, who or what 
provoked the act? The chastisement, it is true, has, according to this 
world's custom, been inflicted upon the weaker and the more simple; 
but consummation of such an act cannot establish the justice of the 
usage. 

The circumstances of the case presuppose something condemnatory on 
the part of the horse, the contemplation of whose conduct could excite 
such indignation in the groom. This fact is further supported by that 
surprise which mingled with the anger of the man. Even his habitual 
lassitude was conquered, through the energy aroused by the spectacle of 
such enormity ! His bile boiled ; his voice grew indistinct with passion ; 
would excitement have permitted clearness of speech, oaths might have 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 209 

been overheard ; the cat was thrown aside without the smallest show of 
ceremony ; the servant leaped to his feet ; with evident determination he 
seized the whip and essayed to punish the offense. 

Discarding inferential evidence, and looking at the case for positive 
testimony, it may be well, before we engage in such an inquiry, to de- 
termine whether the horse has done wrongly, and whether the servant 
has acted rightly — ^the conduct of each being temperately reviewed. The 
quadruped, standing in the manger, and being naturally a timid creature, 
the sight of a whip and the smart of its application might cause the 
terrified life to perform several very energetic and eccentric movements. 
If the animal's fault laid in its mounting on so frail a platform, that, 
certainly, was a reason which should not have excited the groom to 
chastisement during the perilous position. Fear often banishes caution, 
and the exhibition ground of the contention, then, being specially limited, 
any alarm was calculated to provoke the danger which it was the office, 
and doubtless the intention, of the groom to dispel. During the strug- 
gles caused by sudden fright, hair is often removed and sores established. 
A horse, surprised by terror, has engendered fearful blemishes ; trouble- 
some wounds have been produced, and prominences of bone have been 
fractured by the wild efforts of timidity, when excited by horror. The 
horse had no business to stand in the manger; but, being a non-reason- 
ing animal, we may overlook that transgression. The man, however, 
being an intellectual agent, did very wrong in flogging the steed while 
the quadruped retained its perilous position. 

To beat a horse, admits of justification by appealing to custom ; but 
to flog a horse when tied to a manger and confined to a stall, is certainly 
gratifying the human passion at the risk of injury to that property which 
every owner is supposed to possess in the perfect condition of his animal. 
Now man, being blessed with power to think, violated his duty when he 
indulged his own instincts at the hazard of harm to his employer, or 
when he chastised the colt for braving the possibility of injury ; since, by 
so doing, he was guilty of defying the probability of damage, and there- 
fore stands convicted of a worse fault than that for which he punished 
his charge. 

Let us now endeavor to ascertain the real extent of that misdeed the 
contemplation of which provoked an amount of anger sufficient to banish 
prudence from among the virtues of a reasonable being. The colt is, in 
the first place, located and fastened within the stable. The fact certifies 
to no choice having been exercised on the part of the culprit; therefore 
it is blameless, so far as being inside a building might imply an error. 
It was fastened within a defined and an arbitrarily limited department. 
The animal, however, did not plan the edifice, erect the partitions, or 

14 



210 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

halter its own head to one of the mangers ; consequently, so far it must 
be esteemed guiltless. But the creature, being there, leaped into a recep- 
tacle intended for food, and placed before it, thus obtaining a power of 
seeing around it. 

The last act argues discontent, and discontent has never been ranged 
with amiable qualities. Still, it is not commendable to be contented, 
when we possess ability to improve our situation. Eyes certainly are 
natural gifts ; their presence supposes a divine permission that sight 
should be exercised, since the wish to use them is an innate impulse. 
Man himself often endures much inconvenience and pays large sums, 
simply to gratify his eyes with the momentary spectacle of some gor- 
geous procession. The act, which has never been accused as a crime in 
the lords of the creation, should not, therefore, be esteemed unpardonable 
when exemplified by an animal which is occupying an inappropriate 
position. 

Next, let us ask, what excuse can be urged to extenuate a deed which 
has already been shown to be less than a fault, and to be far removed 
from the category of crime ? The horse is formed by nature with a love 
of action. In a modern stable it is tied by the head, while the stall par- 
titions are of sufficient height to isolate its misery. The poor quadruped 
may have stood where it stands for several consecutive hours. The 
manger is fixed directly before it ; the receptacle has been empty some 
time ; the thing is clearly not wanted now to hold food : yet, there the 
open box remains. The head is tied to it; the animal cannot escape 
from looking on and into it ; till speculation, which concern the possible 
intention implied by the fixature of the article, takes absolute possession 
of the equine mind. 

At last a bright idea descends ; the manger is thought to be placed 
where it is, as an easy step for the animal's feet to rest upon. The 
wood-work is situated at a convenient distance from the ground. Man 
could not have supposed the horse wanted victuals lifted to its mouth, 
when every field exhibits one of the tribe lowering its head to gather 
herbage from the earth ? Such a notion is ridiculous I The corn must 
be cast into the manger, simply because the thing is ready to receive it ; 
but its real purpose has only been recently discovered. A slight but 
pleasing effort raises the forefeet on to the imaginary platform. The 
creature is delighted with its elevated position, for the view from it is 
agreeably extended. Assuredly, to discover a new use for an old article, 
merits esteem ; and blame, if any blame be called for, should light on 
him who has imprudently placed temptation before an idle spirit, believ- 
ing animal nature to be too passive for any temptation to aftect it. Man, 
therefore, was disappointed by the quadruped proving more intelligent 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 211 

ihan he bargained for. The exhibition of intelligence should form no 
excuse for chastisement, though disappointment is too apt to expend its 
rage in blows. 

There remains, however, to decide whether the act on the horse's 
part, not being a fault, may be justly esteemed to be a virtue. A dull, 
phlegmatic beast had slept away the time "between the feedings;" had 
been content, so no exertion had been demanded. All men abhor what, 
in stable phraseology, is termed "a slug." It certainly is meritorious 
to seize every opportunity of displaj'ing that sort of temper which our 
superiors desire should be presented. All horse owners love a gay, 
lively, spirited nag. Leaping into the manger was a proof of animation. 
The act may have violated stable propriety ; but the simple nature of the 
quadruped could not comprehend those regulations which man is incapa- 
ble of communicating to the equine understanding ; therefore the rules 
of the place were nothing to the captive. The culpability should rest 
upon him who planned a building with fixtures capable of being readily 
perverted. Leaping into the manger was certainly commendable, so far 
as it testified to intelligence, intrepidity, and liveliness. The blame must 
reside with him who doomed a gregarious creature to solitary existence, 
and fixed before the prisoner a feeding trough, certainly at an inviting 
altitude. 

There is another supposed "vice" which animals doomed to length- 
ened and solitary confinement occasionally exemplify. Some gentlemen 
own several horses. Those parties possess ranges of stables, and every 
stall is occupied. When a person has a stud at his command, he is apt 
to conceive a dislike for riding. Days, and even weeks, may pass with- 
out the saddle or the carriage being ordered for the master's gratification. 
During such a period, the grooms are supposed to give the animals a 
healthful amount of exercise. 

But when superiors neglect their duty, inferiors will probably follow 
the example. A powerful propensity to imitate is one of the human 
peculiarities ; the truth of this observation is far more vigorously illus- 
trated in the stable than in the mansion. Much time may have gone by 
since some of the horses sniffed the breeze or looked upon the face of 
heaven ; let the period be still further extended, and the grooms will not 
complain. The quadrupeds may continue idle, and gorge until their 
livers burst with disease ; but their custodians can never tire of too little 
employment. When an establishment is thus managed, the grooms do 
not generally rise till the hour for morning exercise has passed ; if a 
stray thought of the captives should trouble their consciences, the qualm 
's always quieted with, "Oh ! let the poor devils enjoy a long rest." 

Breach of one obligation, like the falling of a first brick, is seldom a 



212 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



solitary mishap. The stable attendant, not being kept strictly to his 
work, gro\v.s to regard his own likings more than to consider his mas- 
ter's orders. These people are always pleased with the exhibition of 
fat. The proprietor may talk about condition ; but the servant knows 
his master's favorite hunter should carry a "little^^ fat. It looks so gen- 
tlemanly to see a horse that is well fed. Every groom has a rare, secret 
nostrum which will load any animal Avitli fat in a week. He will spend 
his perquisites to purchase this mysterious powder, a spoonful of which, 
given in a mash, at night, acts like a charm. At the same time, he 
serves out the oats and beans pretty generously. He fills the rack, 
heaps the manger, gives a dose of his secret mixture, and then, slapping 
the horse under the flank, exclaims, "There, old boy! I think you may 
enjoy yourself now !" 

We are told an alderman was once solicited for halfpence by a cross- 
ing-sweeper, because the man was "so hungry." The city magnate 
paused, looked at his petitioner, and, with feeling, exclaimed, "Lucky- 
dog! I wi.sh I was also hungry." The horse, wanting exercise, stares 
at the provender, but has no appetite. The food piled up before it is, 




A HORSE WASTING THE HAT. 



to the animal, no other than "matter out of place." Desire is needed to 
give value to such abundance ; and a non-reasoning being cannot be ex- 
pected to prize that which it does not require. It cannot eat, but it lacks 
amusement. The hay is before it. In sheer idleness, a few stalks are 
pulled from the rack. Of these, one may be leisurely masticated ; but 
the remainder, after having been twisted about by the lips, are allowed 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 213 

to fall upon the litter. The sport is followed up until the rack is emptied ; 
and the creature is a little happier, under a conviction that it has escaped 
from absolute stagnation. 

Yet, when we consider the heap of " prime upland " which has been 
spoiled, the subject cannot be allowed to pass without one word of in- 
quiry. Who or what is to blame, when so much fodder is wasted ? No 
animal will prize food after its cravings are appeased. Fowls, having 
eaten, trample the superabundant barley under foot; dogs will sleep 
beside, or bury, a half-gnawed bone ; nay, man himself, subsequent to a 
good dinner, nauseates the greasy smell from the kitchen, and abhors 
the sight of a reeking joint; school-boys form bread seals out of their 
breakfast superfluity; and domesticated gentlemen, located at the bot- 
tom of the table, have, Avhen dinner was finished, been frequently known 
to amuse their fingers by making crumbs upon the cloth. Then the act 
of wasting victuals, after satiety has been achieved, being, with various 
beings, all but universal, the deed cannot be urged as a heavy accusation 
against a simple animal. 

Yet the scattered hay having been observed by the master, the groom 
then severely punishes the wasteful quadruped. In that case, however, 
it is the master's observation, which the animal could not possibly pre- 
vent, that drew down its chastisement ; the blows can establish no fault 
on the part of the horse. Its stomach being crammed, the creature 
could eat no more. The hay, however, was converted to some use. It 
was made to lighten the heavy hours of captivity. Such a purpose may 
not have fulfilled the proprietor's intention ; but it was the only service 
the captive could put it to. The sin, if there be any sin, certainly must 
remain with him who piled up provender before an animal which was 
without an appetite. Waste was indulged when fodder was thus mis- 
appropriated ; and the horse endured punishment from the hand of the 
individual who, had strict justice been administered, should have received 
the lashes on his own person. 

Simple natures, when entirely disengaged, generally make their own 
employment, and that employment, being intended for a passing amuse- 
ment, commonly consists of what thrifty people designate "mischief." 
The knowledge that displeasure will follow upon discoveiy, may spice 
the proceeding which otherwise might want interest. At all events, so 
it is with children ; and it may be thus with animals. When a heaped 
manger is before a satiated quadruped, the impossibility of feeding makes 
*he creature meditate upon the u.ses to which the grain can possibly be 
applied. None can be discovered. The head of the captive is tied, and 
the manger is fixed. At length, in carelessness of spirit, a mouthful is 
taken from the heap. The portion cannot be swallowed, so the lips are 



214 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



moved, and, as they part, the com falls over them upon the ground. 
This may not be a very exciting recreation; but the prisoner is restless 
with repletion. It cannot sleep ; and the grain passing over the lips, 
hi which equine feeling concentrates, produces a slight and a novel sen- 
sation. 




WASTING CORN. 



Can any man seriously pronounce that an animal, standing in enforced 
solitude and compulsory idleness, is to blame for such conduct ? Boys, 
during their school days, when wanting appetite, or having unnecessary 
food before them, will not they, in satiety, play with needless abundance ? 
Are men to demand that prudence from an animal which we should cer- 
tainly not anticipate in the young of our own species ? Yet the child 
enjoys a certain amount of confidence; and its misdoing is, therefore, 
aggravated by a certain abuse of trust. The horse is confined between 
boards, and enjoys not the smallest personal liberty. The severity of 
captivity argues that no reliance reposes upon the captive's discretion. 
All responsibility is lost, when all freedom of action is denied. Yet the 
poor prisoner is cruelly beaten for playing with food, although the true 
fault rested upon him who was too idle to give the exercise which would 
have generated appetite ; and was too lazy to proportion the animal's 
sustenance to the requirements of its situation. 

Moreover, if we had listened to the man's speech, as he entered the 
servants' hall, we should have heard a boast, that the horse had been 
given a good supper. Kow, when a thing is given, all right of owner- 
ship passes away with the transfer. The groom, obviously, lost every 
remnant of title to its possession when he presented the corn to the 
animal as a free gift; and the beating which he administered to the 
quadruped was, therefore, an act of wanton severity. The horse had as 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 215 

great a right as the late Duke of Newcastle, to do as it pleased with its 
own. The flogging could be no more than the gratification of an evil 
passion — out of which motive is generated the most serious crimes ; and, 
consequently, it was anything but a commendable action in the groom 
who needlessly chastised a quadruped. 

Within the same stable is lodged young master's favorite mare. It is 
a beautiful creature: not so slight as to be weedy, but made to carry 
weight with ease, with speed, and with action. The young master on 
this occasion has traveled to London by rail, and the entire day has been 
passed by the mare within the walls of its abode. The fellow quad- 
rupeds have had their exercise; but the groom dislikes this horse. It 
will not remain by itself, while the pipe is enjoyed with a pint of "early 
purl;" the man's pride revolts against drinking his morning's stomachic 
in the street. Besides, the animal, when first taken into the open air, 
will perform a variety of caperings. Young master likes such nonsense : 
but more than once it has thrown the groom. The mare is, therefore, 
abhorred with all the malice of a little mind. Yet the creature is all 
grace and animation ; it is only pleasantly excited, when its master gets 
into the saddle. Can horses possibly possess aristocratic predilections, 
and can the quadrupeds tell whether hirelings or proprietors are seated 
on their backs ? 

The mare is no favorite in the stable. Its feeling of vitality is too 
powerful to admit of that perfect quietude which the monarch of the 
locker loves should pervade his dominion. It is always making some 
noise. Moving about; looking around; nibbling the wood-work; soil- 
ing its coat or rumpling its hair. A most perverse brute to look after ! 
It can't be alone and continue quiet! It will not suppress its spirit; 
hang its head and appear to fall asleep like the other wretches. 

Such an animal, weary of captivity, has pawed its bed, till not a 
single straw remains within the reach of the forefeet. The manger has 
been repeatedly licked, till the possibility of a stray oat no longer stimu- 
lates further endeavor. The quadruped has strained its neck and ele- 
vated its head, till it is quite tired of staring around at nothing. It 
lacks amusement, and is half inclined to provoke a beating rather than 
endure the weight of silence and the horror of that monotony which per- 
vades its abode. In this state of restlessness, the vision alights upon 
the collar-rope. It essays to catch hold of it. The cord, however, 
being fastened near to the halter, of course it moves with every motion 
of the head. The feat is not, therefore, so easy as to lack excitement. 
The prisoner becomes quite elated. A new pastime has at last been 
discovered 1 

At first the rope is seized between the lips. The tether, however, 



216 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 







GNAWING THE COLLAR-BOPE. 



often escapes from such a hold : the teeth, therefore, are ultimately em- 
ployed. The texture of the firmest cord is easily compressed by the 
muscular power of the horse's jaw I The substance is not unpleasant 
to bite ; nor is the taste of hemp altogether disagreeable. The teeth, 
consequently, do not relinquish their grip with the termination of the 
game. The thing is, from mere vacuity, bitten with different degrees of 

force. Fiber after fiber yields, till, 
-. without any design or the slightest 

intention, the substance is divided. 
The creature is then released ; but 
it does not at first comprehend 
that its bond is destroyed. At 
length, the welcome truth is recog- 
nized, and, bounding with delight, 
the released captive scampers 
about the gangway, peering into 
^ forbidden places, and reveling in 
its temporary freedom ! 

The amazement of the groom 
is excited at the spectacle of a horse enjoying liberty I No thought is 
wasted upon the intelligence which was able to achieve so great a bless- 
ing. All animals, within the building, are credited only with evil quali- 
ties ; nothing praiseworthy is looked for or expected to be displayed by 
them. The only virtue a horse is esteemed capable of exhibiting is 
brutish submission. The groom, seeing the creature roving about, ex- 
claims in anger, "That wicket beast, agin ! It is up to every 'vice !'" 

Another and a stouter rope is procured. The fastening is renewed, 
and made more strong than it was before. But what has been accom- 
plished once, will be repeated. It may be some days before hmited 
intelligence can recall the precise manner in which its accidental pleasure 
was secured ; but, after an interval, the audacious animal is again in 
possession of unlawful license. Such occasions subsequently occur more 
quickly. Till, at length, the groom, puzzled and aggravated by the in- 
genuity of his charge, substitutes a thick chain for that which had hitherto 
been represented by a hempen tether. 

Iron is not so pleasant to the teeth, neither will it yield so readily to 
force as did the hemp. The chain is, consequently, an effectual check to 
some animals. Others, however, are not thus readily subdued. The 
recollection of forbidden sweets, once tasted and longingly remembered, 
stimulates their faculties. The teeth soon instruct the understanding 
that iron cannot be bitten. Is there no other way of breaking the fetter ? 
All living things, when desirous of freedom; pull violently agamst the 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



21T 



bond which restrains them. The quadruped adopts the general artifice. 
The chain stretches. It perceptibly yields. Then, all the strength and 
weight are brought to bear : the fetter breaks. Only, the door is locked 
for the night, when this second offense is consummated ; and the horse 
is the next morning discovered by its groom, careering about the gang- 
way or sharing the stall of a companion. 




BREAKING LOOSE. 



That which one chain is powerless to retain may, nevertheless, be 
confined by double fetters. The groom, accordingly, has a second ring 
fixed upon the manger rail. A stout leathern strap is then buckled 
round the upper portion of a horse's neck. To that additional and 
heavier chain, passing through the second ring, an extra sinker is 
fastened. The head of the animal has, by this plan, to endure a 
■double, or more than a double, weight. A constant drag, therefore, 
does not improve the carriage of the crest ; but it may serve to remind 
the quadruped of its recent successful plan of escape, while it certainly 
cannot otherwise than stimulate the desire for liberty. 

The struggles which, in the first instance, were so effective, being now 
proved powerless, the groom would joyously chuckle over his contri- 
vance, only perseverance in the horse is causing its neck-strap to inter- 
fere with the personal appearance of the animal. Constant friction and 
perpetual strain have made an unsightly notch in the mane, while the 
neck-strap has generated a circular mark totally devoid of hair. The 
mane is nature's embellishment, and neither horse nor lady looks more 
pleasing, when their flowing tresses have been partially destroyed. 

This is very vexing. Yet, when bad begins, worse generally remains 
behind. Animals which have adopted an idea seem incapable of relin- 
quishing the notion. Tlie creature having once broken its tether resorts 



218 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

to its former plan of operations ; it pulls and pulls, only the bonds not 
yielding to the same force as before, the horse, following the groom's 
principle, increases the strength requisite to overpower the difficulty. 




THE EFFECT OF THE COLLAR-STRAP. 



A man being defeated in his first essay, probably would resign him- 
self to sullen despair. But the horse is possessed of a different order of 
mind. Man can conceive a futurity; animals have a knowledge only of 
the past. All the tales told of animal instincts are capable of explana- 
tion by reference to their experience. Chastisement or chiding must 
be often repeated before brute intelligence can connect the infliction of 
pain with the commission of certain acts. But, the two being associ- 
ated, the teaching is generally retained, and, apparently, remains as 
fresh in the memory upon the day of death as it was upon the first 
acknowledgment of the lesson. The horse is, however, expected only 
to obey certain signs, and submit to certain restraints. Its intellect 
remains, therefore, in a great measure uncultivated. What has been 
once must be again, embraces the range of its understanding. 

The additional chain, consequently, makes no alteration in the be- 
havior of the horse. Present failure only excites to increased exertion. 
The entire weight and the utmost strength are brought to bear upon the 
fastenings. The simple quadruped, incapable of calculating the prob- 
able results of the sudden absence of resistance, plies with greater 
energy, till the chains snap, and the huge body, instantaneously re- 
leased, shoots violently backward. Bones have been broken. Lame- 
ness is the general result ; but lucky, indeed, is the creature which can 
rise after such a misfortune, and merely display several huge portions of 
its skin abraded. 

The reader is here invited to examine the facts which have resulted in 
this serious damage to living property. To bind the strong is not 



EVILS or MODERN STABLES. 



219 



necessarily to subdue the strong. To fetter the creature in whose 
welfare man has an interest, is evidently a defiance of probabilities, 




THE CHAINS HAVE B£E.\ SUNDERED. 



though it may not have been intended so to operate when the bonds 
were secured. The majority of horses can be stayed by a simple show 
of authority. We see a boy hold an animal from which the strong 
man has newly dismounted. So also would many a human culprit be 
secure in the old-fashioned prisons. Jails, however, are not erected 
with any regard for the passiveness of their inhabitants; but such 
edifices are built of a strength which may defy the efibrts of the reso- 
lute, and are planned with an intent to counteract the ingenuity of the 
most cunning. Not so with stables. These edifices are erected to con- 
fine a creature possessing ten times the strength of any human being. 
The partitions, however, are of wood, and the bonds usually of rope. 
Those who are most fluent about the "vices" of the equine race evi- 
dently never thought upon the possibility of the animal conceiving a 
wish to escape ; for so very unequal are most stables to their contem- 
plated uses, that the author has known a horse, in the delirium of 
agony, kick into ruins the building which, during health, had for years 
served to confine its huge capability of destruction. 

The stable, however, is essentially a prison ; and so long as it retains 
that character, it should be of sufficient strength to resist the wildest 
eflForts of the captives. Not being thus, it reflects disgrace on those who 
put it to uses for which the building is unsuited. The animal, being in 
bondage, loses all responsibility. Its safe custody is the duty of its 
self-constituted keepers. It has no trust reposed in it ; and, obviously, 
can violate no faith. It is held in durance by the right of the strong; 
and if in the struggle which ensues it can prove the strongest, clearly 
the right which imprisoned it is upturned. 



5S3JU EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

In another point of view, the decision must be favorable to the animal. 
Nature has gifted the horse with faculties, and blessed it with instincts. 
Foremost among these faculties is, a facility of varied motion, displayed 
in particular yearnings ; as a fondness for fresh air, green fields, and a 
desire to roam abroad, unfettered, in the company of its kind. Man 
violently seizes the quadruped ; without caring for the innate promptings 
of nature, he forces his slave to live, severed from all its longings and 
away from all it loves. Which is the horse to obey? Is it to deny the 
charter planted by its Maker within its bosom ? Or is it any crime to 
rebel against the will which will shorten its life, withhold its pleasures, 
and cripple its body, — studying nothing but the pigmy's personal gain 
and heartless advantage ? 

Then, when the reader turns to the consideration of the custodian's 
conduct. Had the circumstances deprived him of all choice, and limited 
his means of restraining to a doubling of the customary bonds ? It is 
folly for the weak to engage in a muscular contest with the powerful. It 
is madness for the feeble to place dependence on straws, when the design 
is to bind a giant In both respects the groom was in fault. Had he 
only thought for an instant, reason would have suggested that plan by 
which the resistance of the horse might have been subdued, and his 
master's property might have continued uninjured. 

The animal's struggles expressed merely a dislike to the rope attached 
to the head. Two fastenings were not calculated to remove the abhor- 
rence which a single bond excited. Had the horse been led from the 
stall and placed in the solitary chamber of a loose box, the change had 
quieted its spirit. At so small an expense might all the subsequent 
damage have been avoided. But a loose box does not acknowledge the 
pride of man, to use all the life with which this world abounds according 
to his convenience. It was for pride's sake that mortality waged the 
battle ; and in loss did pride undergo defeat. 

Endeavor to explain the reason why a valuable horse has been dam- 
aged, to any professed groom, and try to make him understand how the 
miscalled accident might have been avoided; — the man, while you are 
speaking, will put on that look of dogged indifference which informs you 
the fellow has closed his comprehension against every argument. When 
you cease talking, the servant stares you in the face, and replies, " He 
wants no gentl'man to teach him his doty;" and, by so saying, announces 
a determination to persevere in that course of conduct which has induced 
such lamentable consequences. There are men in this world who only 
employ their reason to perpetuate their ignorance. It is one thing to 
teach ; but it is more difficult to find a pupil willing to be instructed. 

In many genteel families, stables are esteemed as places in which 



EYILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



221 



lumber may be stored ; while grooms are regarded as odd men, always 
ready to be engaged upon any passing necessity. The stable attend- 
ant is seldom upon the locker; and the one animal, kept for fashionable 
purposes, is commonly left much to its own society. The creature, thus 
housed, does not generally get its meals with regularity. Many hours 
are made longer, endeavoring to discover the pastime which shall lighten 
the tedium of its confinement. A melancholy game with such quad- 
rupeds consists in an endeavor to hit the collar-rope with the hoof of the 
fore extremity. 

This recreation, to the reader doubtless appears easy ; but to the horse 
it presents difficulties sufficiently numerous to keep up excitement. The 
rope is a small object ; it is situated high up ; it occupies a central situa- 
tion. The sinker to which it is attached keeps it always straight, and 
prevents it from being lowered. The cord, moreover, being fastened to 
the head of the quadruped, moves with every motion of the body ; the 
neck cannot be held stationary when the limb is raised to any unusual 
height. The game may endure for months, without the animal being 
so unfortunate as to succeed. At length the hoof hits the mark and 
becomes fixed. The horse instinctively pulls against any restraint. The 
tether is thereby rendered tense, and the pain of the situation becomes 
extreme. At last, by a violent effort, the foot passes over the bond, 
and the poor captive is fixed, until the groom enters the building and 
removes the sinker. 




A rORELEQ OVER THE COLLAR-ROPE. 



The lightest consequence must be, the hair abraded from the back of 
the limb, the skin lacerated, and the muscles of the neck sprained by the 
efforts to escape from constriction. Lameness, of some duration, is the 



222 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

usual result. Inquire the cause of mishap, and the groom will petu- 
lantly inform you "it were occasioned by the pranks of that fidgety 
beast, which is always up to some mischief." Perhaps you object to 
this explanation, replying, '"Mischief is not a fitting term, since it sup- 
poses intentional annoyance to another; whereas the horse has injured 
no one but itself." The man stares with surprise, and rejoins, "Ar'nt it, 
though 1 But it has injured me I When shall I ever hear the last of it?" 
Truly, the stable mind must quit the scene of its present labors, before 
it will submit to be enlightened. It is now so protected by a wall of 
selfishness, ignorance, and prejudice, that it is open to no assault. 

This misfortune is, however, gravely reckoned one of the "vices" of 
the stable. It is seldom repeated ; but a single instance is sufficient to 
confer the "vicious" character. Poor animal! When even mishaps are 
regarded as the planned results of its deliberate wickedness. Having so 
many virtues, yet not credited with a single good quality I Wholly and 
entirely misunderstood ! Else, who in this accident would not perceive 
intelligence striving to invent some solitary pastime, which might while 
away the flagging hours ? Else, who would not recognize that this 
evil arose out of the foolish custom of tying up an active creature to a 
manger ? Else, who could fail to discern that a loose box would have 
rendered such an injury a positive impossibility ? 

The author is aware that were horses fitly housed and properly 
treated, the expense of maintaining these creatures must be increased. 
But against all additional cost there are benefits to be balanced. The 
animal would live more than thrice as long ; it would, for so much 
greater period, be fit for its master's service. The accidents occasioned 
by modern stables would be abolished; the sickness and the disease, 
produced by inappropriate food, by rigid confinement and impure air, 
would cease to exist. With change of building, there should also be a 
thorough change in the stable attendant. The present race of know- 
ing deformities are too full of tricks to be worthy a gentleman's trust. 
The groom should be forbidden ever to mount an animal, save in obedi- 
ence to his superior's special command. Now the men ride at their 
pleasure ; as a consequence, they very rarely walk. The quadruped is 
supposed to be only one person's property ; but the poor drudge has to 
serve "two masters." 

Under the present system, the horse is relinquished to the pleasure of 
the servant. The man's report constitutes the all of a proprietor's knowl- 
edge. The mansion, therefore, reflects the ignorance and the prejudice of 
the stable. The persons occupying the buildings should change places. 
Most masters ride slowly, merely exercising the nags. Most grooms love 
speed, and in reality wear out the lives which credulity thinks sacred to 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 223 

another's service. Yet, though surrounded by abuse, ill treated and 
often robbed of its food, the creature has no voice with which to accuse 
or to complain. There is no one who even cares for its welfare. It is 
credited with every "vice" and supposed to delight in malice. It is 
imprisoned, beaten, libeled, and nevertheless gentlemen are often en- 
countered who pride themselves upon the care and the money which 
are lavished upon their stables. 

When all that concerns mankind — the formation of their houses, their 
kind of food, their dress and manners, their laws and customs — have, 
with the progress of the period, thoroughly changed ; even to such an 
extent has this alteration been accomplished that it has been often said, 
were our ancestors resuscitated, they would not recognize the land of 
their birth; it becomes very painful for the mind to perceive that the 
habits and usages which formerly surrounded the horse remain to this 
day all but unaltered. It is a proof of the indifference which encircles 
the stable, when the buildings erected to receive horses at the Royal 
Yeterinary College, and which date from the last century, are, at the 
present moment, regarded as models of perfection. Man cares only for 
himself: of his property in the life which he imprisons, he evidently 
takes no heed. He pays dearly for his carelessness; and "the beast 
within his gate" shares none of those blessings which Providence has 
allowed the human race to enjoy, although religion should teach him 
that the mere mention of such a possession by Deity, ought to enforce a 
duty upon humanity ! 

Another so-named "vice" of the horse is frequently the occasion of 
more serious results than any of the before-mentioned accidents. No 
person has hitherto explained wlw the skin should be more irritable by 
night than during the daytime. Such, however, is the case with horses, 
as it is with men. A quadruped in the morning is often found disfigured 
by the hair being removed from comparatively large surfaces. Itchiness 
has provoked the animal to rub itself against any prominence, or to 
scratch its body with the toe of its iron shoe ; this indulgence has 
caused the blemish. 

Itching and scratching are numbered among the worst "vices" of the 
stable. Such faults, however, are only discovered in their effects ; the 
groom never estimates, when flogging an animal for this wickedness, 
how far the abhorred sin may have been produced by stimulating diet, 
by want of exercise, and by impure atmosphere. No ! He clothes up 
the body of the animal ; shuts every window ; stops every cranny ; and 
locks the stable door for the night. The last meal being consumed, and 
the quadrupeds not being inclined for sleep, they one and all begin to 
itch. Legs are nibbled ; necks are rubbed ; and tails are lashed. At 



224 



EVILS or MODERN STABLES. 



length one is sensible of an irritation behind the ear. The head is turned 
toward the side ; the body is curved to the full extent ; and the hind leg 
brought forward. Then, the groom not being present, the toe of the hind 
shoe can touch the part, and the horse luxuriates in a hearty titillation. 

When the head was turned toward the quarters, however, the collar- 
rope, being attached to the halter, was also stretched in that direction. 
The hind foot having performed its office, a desire is felt to return it to 
the natural position. The attempt is made ; but this is found to be im- 
practicable. The creature strains against the opposing force, but its 
struggles only render its comfortless attitude the more fixed. The truth 
is, that while devoted to the act which allays cuticular irritability, the 
pastern has slipped over the collar-rope. Such a mishap not only fixes 
the leg, but fastens the head. With the neck bent and one leg disabled, 
the animal cannot exert half its power ; neither can simplicity compre- 
hend the source of its unnatural constraint. Long continuance of the 
position becomes painful; alarm seizes vipon timidity; the struggles 
grow desperate ; and the poor quadruped, at length, is cast with terrible 
violence upon the straw which had been shaken down for its repose. 




CAST IN THE COLLAR-ROPE. 



The animal is lucky which should be ovcrthrowm in a limited space 
and escape serious misfortune. It can hardly encounter such an acci- 
dent and rise from the ground uninjured. The slightest consequences 
are contused wounds or fractures of small osseous prominences. The 
worst result, however, usually follows the body being forcibly contorted 
throughout an entire night. Bones have been dislocated, or a limb has 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 225 

been so sprained as never to have recovered its functions. Necks have 
never afterward been restored to their pristine grace of motion ; and, in 
short, a valuable servant has, by such a misfortune, been so "wrenched 
from its propriety," as to be rendered utterly useless. Nevertheless, the 
groom will persevere in hailing the fate of an animal which has been 
cast in the collar-rope as a just punishment induced by the sufferer's 
inveterate "vice." 

Carters are open to complaint, because their horses are "cast in the 
halter," even to a greater degree than those of town grooms. In agricul- 
tural districts, it is a common practice to turn the teams out to graze 
during the night, and to take them from the field to work in the morn- 
ing. Some animals, however, prove troublesome to catch, preferring the 
cool grass and partial liberty to exhausting toil upon an arid roadway. 
To facilitate the capture of such quadrupeds, many carters, when freeing 
the creature, will not remove the halter, but suffer it to remain, because 
this affords a ready hold for the person who fetches in the horses on the 
following day. The result is easily anticipated. The ear itches. The 
foot, scratching the part, gets entangled, and that which was a valuable 
horse on the previous night, is found, in the dawning light, to be a dis- 
abled cripple, or a worthless carcass. 

The sane mind will, however, behold in this misfortune only a start- 
ling proof of the folly which ties the head to a manger, and leaves the 
animal at the hazard of a fearful accident. Such events have been com- 
mon ever since the race was first domesticated; yet, to this day, the 
custom is practiced. Where one quadruped enjoys a loose box, ten 
thousand are confined to the manger. Neither loss nor the spectacle of 
the misery produced by his folly seems able to instruct man where the 
life of another is delivered over to his keeping. As, in America, the 
master coerces and lashes his slave, so, in England, do proprietors starve, 
torture, and slay the animals which all pretend to love. The devotion 
of a life cannot even purchase those necessaries which are needful for 
the preservation of health. Though the strength and the service are 
contingent upon the maintenance of bodily vigor, man, with the capri- 
ciousness of tyranny, is neglectful of that upon the continuance of which 
the value of his possession entirely depends. 

It may be urged that the size of the horse's body necessarily limits 
the dimensions of its abiding-place. This is a strange reason ; but it is 
one commonly used among architects. We, however, do not apply the 
principle to our own race. Because the Horse Guards are tall men, we 
do not insist they should sleep in infants' cots, or wear the clothes of 
children. Giants are not forced to inhabit the houses fit only for dwarfs. 
Neither do we carry out the maxim with other creatures. Large rab- 

15 



326 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

bits boys, put into large hutches. Were smaller horses desired, ponies, 
even no higher than full-sized dogs, are not scarce. But greater weight 
and strength enable the quadrupeds to perform larger services. Does it 
not seem like meanness to select size for our own purposes, yet, where 
the creature is concerned, to make size a motive for stinting the neces- 
sities? The horse is useful to man in proportion to its magnitude; 
and the poor slave, therefore, ought not to feel the bulk to be its mis- 
fortune ! 

The author cannot here report the grooms' opinions upon such a topic, 
though, doubtless, these persons would be the advocates of misrule. 
There is no class, however, which suffers more than stable-men, from 
the present custom of confining horses. On cold, wintry nights, when 
snow is on the ground, these persons, who generally live above the 
stable, are often awakened from their first sleep, forced to leap from 
warm beds, and, thinly clad, to hurry down stairs to quiet the horses. 
The entire stable are lashing out at the same moment. Each hoof 
seems to be leveled at the stall post, which all violently strike ; hence 
the disturbance. 

But what occasions horses to kick by night ? That question is per- 
haps best answered by another. What occasions children to cry by 
night ? Both wake suddenly, and each finds darkness or solitude and 
silence around it. The horse is a timid creature, and it is of a limited 
intelligence. Children are not generally conspicuous for courage, and, 
in them, the reason is undeveloped. Infants are born with a natural 
sense of helplessness ; hence they are the easy victims of alarm, and 
when frightened, they scream aloud. Horses are brought into the world 
with an instinctive dependence on the propulsion of the heels, and when 
frightened, they kick. Children have startled up from fearful dreams, 
and have screamed themselves into fits. Animals also dream ; horses 
having awakened suddenly, have used their heels as a defense, and 
have been found lying dead upon the ruins of a battered wall in the 
morning 1 

The feet, when cast out, hit the stall post. The blackness of night 
prevails throughout the place; or fear being kindled, the vision is 
abused. No eye can pierce utter darkness, and terror lends shape or 
form to every obstacle which the hoof encounters. The dread which 
sleep has generated, the awakened perception seems to confirm. The 
animal lashes out with redoubled violence. The noise made by the act 
soon arouses its companions. Nothing is so sympathetic as horror. 
Armies have been actuated by panics. Why, therefore, should animals 
escape from such senseless emotions ? When thousands of men have 
scampered away from no existing peril, cannot the reader understand 



EYILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



227 



that many animals may be impelled by a feeling of fear, when no clanger 
is present ? 

This is sooner admitted, when it is perceived that the fancy is active 
in proportion as the intellect is weak: the groom, not having a very 
powerful understanding, nor having yet slept off the potions and fumes 
of the previous evening, curses those "vicious varmints," as he shiver- 
ingly opens the stable door. No sooner, however, does the candle 
illumine, or his presence destroy the loneliness of the place, than fearful 
eyes cast backward glances, and seeing nothing, all instantly becomes 
silent. Our engraving of the above incident represents every horse in 
action ; though, frequently, the more slothful will remain passive, not- 
withstanding the tumult which prevails around them. 




EICEINQ IN THE NIGHT. 



This is the effect invariably produced, as soon as the quadrupeds have 
sufficiently mastered their terror to regain their natural perceptions. 
Sometimes, however, a minute may elapse before consciousness is per- 
fectly restored. That is the period of danger. Many silly fellows, 
impatient of their thin clothing, pierced by the frosty air, will approach 
the animals, during the interval, without remembering that though his 



228 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

voice may produce its usual eifect, his costume is altogether a disguise. 
The man not being recognized, his strange figure may renew the general 
alarm : when the gangway, having on both sides the hind feet of terrified 
horses projected into it, becomes anything but a safe promenade. 

Now, what produced this excitement of the stable ? It was not the 
dream of one animal which caused it. That may have commenced the 
tumult, but it was not of itself necessary to the perpetuation of the 
uproar. The hoof of one quadruped striking the stall post also was 
distinct from the subsequent noise, which started into existence only 
with the spread of alarm. Then was generated the terror ; for the feel- 
ing must have preceded the act, which announced itself by violence. It 
was the darkness or the silent solitude of the night which allowed full 
play to the fancy, and conjured up those shadows that drove the horses 
into temporary madness. 

Had not the heads been fastened, the animals, by moving about, could 
in some measure have tested the reality of their fears. But, fastened to 
one spot, the fact of having no ability to escape augmented that alarm 
which the darkness of the stable and the oppression of silence caused 
and subsequently confirmed. A loose box and a little light would have 
rendered this noise an impossibility ! The horse's eye can see perfectly 
in ' that dusk which to the feebler vision of man might represent aji 
approach to positive blackness. There are few horsemen who, when 
riding by night, have not had reason to be grateful to the keen percep- 
tion of their four-footed servants. There are, however, fewer horsemen 
who are aware whence the animal derives this faculty of distinguishing 
objects in all but perfect darkness. 

Cats, owls, and other creatures are popularly reported to see in the 
dark. The discernment of every form of vision is disabled by perfect 
darkness ; but the eyes of such animals are so constructed as to collect 
and reflect upon the optic nerve any remaining ray of light. The horse 
has an eye endowed with a similar faculty. Most people must have 
observed that horses assemble under the trees, and apparently sleep 
during the daytime. Who, however, ever beheld one of the equine race 
resting during the night ? When summer prevails, night is the feeding 
time of these quadrupeds. When the flies are no longer abroad, but 
the dewy grass is cool and crisp to the bite, — when the absence of glare 
soothes the sight is the period of equine enjoyment and the season of 
equine watchfulness. Does not the reader acknowledge intention in 
such circumstances ? The carnivora, all of which delight in the flesh of 
the steed, prowl by night, and abound in those regions of which the 
horse was originally a native. For the conservation of the tribe, there- 
fore, these creatures were formed very fleet, very endu''mg, but no less 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 229 

quick to detect the approach of an enemy, being as restless by night as 
the beasts which esteem the horse's carcass a favorite repast. 

The steed, therefore, does not require a chandelier to be fully illumined 
and to be suspended in the middle of the gangway. An ordinary night 
light would enable the animal to see perfectly over a large building; 
and the expense, when divided among numerous individuals, would for 
each be too small for any English coin to represent. No light, however, 
could prevent some quadruped occasionally waking up, and in the fright 
of imperfect consciousness flinging out both its heels. Such accidents 
no forethought could anticipate. But a slight flame, only sufficient to 
dispel absolute darkness, would mitigate if not quite abolish those panics 
during which every foot in the stable is employed to create the greatest 
attainable noise. 

There is another so-called "vice," which is more directly brought 
home to the groom than any of the previous mishaps. Probably the 
statement may, to the reader, appear impossible, which asserts that the 
servant can impose upon the master so many of his own faults as proofs 
of "mischief" on the part of an innocent quadruped which it is the 
menial's duty to look after. This cheat the fellow is enabled to prac- 
tice chiefly because he is supposed to be incapable of explaining or of 
distorting those circumstances which he reports. Thus mishaps are 
called according to their final eifects ; and no notice is ever given to the 
causes which led to such results. A horse is said to have "leapt into 
the manger;" "to have broken loose;" "to have gnawed the collar- 
rope;" "to have got one leg over the collar-rope;" "to have cast itself 
in the collar-rope," etc. 

Were inquiries instituted, the truth, no doubt, would be speedily dis- 
covered, and long ago a remedy would have been apportioned. No 
domestic, however, enjoys so much of the master's implicit confidence 
as he who governs the stable. Persons, moreover, of the class re- 
spectable are far more swayed by their servants than might be pleasant 
for the gentlemen to acknowledge. Under this feeling, a vast amount 
of abuse lies concealed, for the weakness is by no means responded to 
by respect from the inferior. The "respectable" is always asserting his 
dij;nity, and afterward compounding for hastily-spoken words. The 
groom neither forgets nor forgives these verbal injuries, although his 
mind is amply stored with maxims against upstarts, to protect his vanity 
from any wholesome teaching which the admonitions might convey. 

Gentlemen, when detained late abroad, generally ride home fast ; 
partly, from a consciousness that it is long past their usual hour of 
"retiring for the night," and partly, because they know the groom is 
"waiting up" for their return. "When the stable is reached, the coat 



230 EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 

of the horse may be wet with perspiration ; or a badly-made saddle 
may have disturbed the smoothness of the hair ; or the night may prove 
rainy, and the animal be brought home drenched to the skin. There 
are other causes ; but be they what they may, the master walks off to 
bed, while the servant, noting the example, extracts from it no additional 
humor to discharge his duty. The man is, likewise, cross and sleepy. 
He turns the horse into the stall without attempting to dress it. He 
places oats and hay before the quadruped, and says, "If gentl'men will 
remain out till all 'ours o' the night, they may sit up and dress their oss 
'emselves ; for it is rather too much to expect any se'vant, after a 'ard 
day's work, to keep out of his bed and do it for 'em." Accordingly, the 
man hurries to his room, and soon sleeps soundly. 

The quadruped, when the satisfaction of hunger allows the personal 
feelings to be appreciated, becomes aware that the partial dryness of the 
coat has produced much irritability of the skin. The animal, therefore, 
throws itself down, and commences to enjoy the luxury of a roll among 
the straw. Darkness disables the vision ; but, were the light at its greatest 
power, the horse, in its state of torture, would probably notice nothing 
about it, for domestication destroys the natural instincts of all animals, 
making man the custodian of the cares as well as the bodies of the cap- 
tives. The paving of the stall, also, being highest near to the manger, 
the inclination of the floor, together with the writhing of the body, oc- 
casions the quadruped to insensibly slide backward, until the tension of 
the collar-rope forbids its further progress. 

This check induces the wish to rise ; an attempt is made to bring the 
legs under the body for that object. But as this movement is endeavored 
to be accomplished, the hinder shins strike violently against some hard 
substance. The effort is renewed again and again ; till the animal, de- 
prived of sight and prevented from supplying the loss of one sense by 
the exercise of another, ultimately becomes alarmed, and the struggle 
commences, during which the hind legs are certain to be bruised, abraded, 
or other evils are sure to be inflicted upon the organs of propulsion. 
Nor is this all the peril in which the creature is now placed. Noise 
awakens the natural timidity of the companions ; and should other horses 
be startled by the violent drumming on the partitions, probably they 
will become the victims of alarm. The sight of the animals is likewise 
useless in the utter darkness; and horses, when frightened, usually "hang 
back," or try to escape from the ropes which fasten the heads to the 
several mangers. 

Under such an impulse, the obtruding legs stand a good cliance of 
being broken ; and the animal then must remain in its misery till master 
has approved the employment of a pistol. Should nothing beyond 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



231 



bruise and abrasion be present, the groom himself undertakes the imme- 
diate relief. Another man is procured, and the knot below the sinker 
being untied, the head is released from the manger. But it is not usual 
for quadrupeds, after such a misfortune, to rise immediately. However, 
the servant always hopes for the best, so he and his assistant jointly 
pull at the tail till the legs are free from impediment, and then leave the 
wounded creature for master's wonder and inspection. 




A HORSE CAST BT EOLUNO IN THE MANGER. 



A HORSE BEING RELEASED FROM THE PREVIOUS 
SITUATION. 



The remedies applied to all injuries (excepting fractures) which occur 
in the stable are equally simple, and few in number. These consist of a 
lotion, composed of two ounces of tincture of arnica, which is put into 
a pint bottle, to be subsequently filled up with water. This is used till 
all symptoms of bruise or swelling have disappeared, after which another 
lotion is to replace the first. This last is formed by adding one grain of 
chloride of zinc to every ounce of water, or one scruple to each meas- 
ured pint of fluid. These lotions are to be applied frequently, not 
directly to the injury itself, but a sponge, saturated with each liquid, is 
to be squeezed dry above the sore, the moisture being allowed to trickle 
over the wound. 

The strongest testimony, however, against stables, as such buildings 
are at present erected, is perhaps borne by the animals which inhabit 
those places. The horse is a delicate test, which man would do well to 
attentively observe when he is desirous of ascertaining the healthfulness 
of any locality. Naturally it is all animation and gayety of spirit. But, 



232 



EVILS OF MODERN STABLES. 



however much these qualities may be esteemed, such equine recom- 
mfendations will soon fade before the joint influence of impure air and 
close confinement, although you may groom and feed at discretion. The 
natural period of life is diminished one-half, while much more than half 
of the remaining years is rendered useless by age, prematurely brought 
on by inappropriate treatment. 




THE EXPRESSION OF COUNTENANCE INDUCED BT LONG STAGNATION IN THE STALL 
OP A WELL-PROVIDED STABLE. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE FAULTS INSEPAKABLE FROM MOST PRESENT ERECTIONS WHICH ARE 
USED AS STABLES. 

No gentleman regards his country-seat as finished until to it ample 
stabling is appended. The mansion is the first thing looked to. All its 
rooms must be noble ; all its ofiices must be convenient. The pleasure- 
grounds must be magnificent ; the kitchen-garden should be much larger 
than is absolutely necessary. Nothing must interrupt the view from 
the drawing-room windows. A park, or its imitation, must terminate 
the lawn. No wood must be sacrificed. Everything must imply more 
wealth than the owner's purse actually contains. As to stables, of 
course they must be most excellent ; only, being situated in the back- 
ground, no great expense need be lavished on such out-buildings ; any 
waste spot will serve for their erection. A small space, judiciously em- 
ployed, can be made to house a great number of horses. 

The architect, being informed of the wishes of his employer, unhesi- 
tatingly asserts that four feet, or four feet six, or, in extreme cases, five 
feet, are considered ample width for stalls. The proprietor agrees to 
grant the last-named space for the abiding-place by day of a living 
horse, and the spot on which rest must be enjoyed during night by the 
same huge quadruped. Many a human pigmy sleeps on a more ample 
coiich, which, moreover, is situated in a spacious chamber. Such is the 
distinction drawn between master and slave ; although, when rightly 
considered, life is but life, and the larger animal has the greater neces- 
sity for more abundant air ! 

This decided, the gentleman rubs his hands, and, warmed by the con- 
templation of his own liberality, applauds "the nice arrangements," 
which he has sanctioned "regardless of expense." But the carriage- 
house, he is positive, shall be built quite large enough. He cannot 
forget that those rascals grazed his last new vehicle on the very day it 
came home from Long Acre. The accident happened while putting it 
into a narrow building. No ! Let what will be cramped, the carriage- 
house must be spacious. 

(233) 



234 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

Thus, men take much care of that species of property which, being 
damaged, can be repaired for money ; but they treat with neglect, and 
thrust into unwholesome corners, that life which, when injured, not 
all the wealth accumulated upon this globe could restore to soundness. 
With the inanimate, there is nothing to remove the full force of blame, 
which man must accept as his fault alone. The deterioration of such 
articles, when it occurs, cannot be laid to the charge of any other living 
being. This renders man more careful of such things. With life, there 
is always something which can be made to take the weight of culpability 
from the master's shoulders. The horse was obstinate ; it had a bad 
temper ; it possessed a vile mouth ; it bolted ; it refused ; it shied ; it 
reared ; it jibbed ; it kicked, or, in some way, it resolved not to do its 
duty. The dumb creature can make no answer to the accusation ; and 
human nature is readily convinced of its impartiality when its errors 
have been mainly cast upon another life. 

The builder is, of course, governed by the architect ; the architect is 
anxious to exhibit plans which shall elicit the approval of the proprietor. 
So, in the end, those arrangements, upon which the well-being and the 
health of many lives must depend, rest upon the caprice of an elderly 
gentleman, who now, for the first time in his life, may give serious 
thought to such a subject. However, this is the rule, whether a house 
is intended for a family residence or is erected as a speculation : the 
stables almost invariably occupy the space which is left after every other 
want is satisfied. 

When picturing one, the author designs to portray most modern 
stables: very few of which are erected after maturer considerations 
than the imaginary elderly gentleman has bestowed upon his contem- 
plated "out-houses." Proverbially, according to this world's usages, the 
submissive are the abused; it would indeed be difiicult to discover a 
more perfect type of absolute submission than is exemplified in the 
powerful body of a domesticated horse. Are we, therefore, to conclude 
that in this attribute lies the reason why it is the most ill-treated, the 
worst-nourished, and the meanest-lodged of the many inhabitant? upon 
this earth ? 

However, that the writer may not be accused of drawing on his fancy, 
or of representing as actualities things which have no existence in fact, 
he will, where reference is necessary, quote from the pages of a work 
on " Stable Economy," written by Professor Stewart, of Glasgow. This 
book, when a pupil at the Royal Veterinary College of London, was 
purchased by the author, he being induced to procure it by the high 
character which it bore among the members of his profession. There- 
fore it is selected as an authority upon the subject of which it treats; 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 235 

and when quoting it, the present writer will, so far as may be prudent, 
forbear to adduce his personal opinions. 

Concerning doors, permitting egress from and allowing entrance into 
stables, Professor Stewart directs that these should be made "eight or 
eight and a half feet high and five feet wide." The dimensions here 
laid down are evidently regarded as large or of model amplitude ; for, 
subsequently, we are informed "accidents often happen from having 
doors too low and too narrow." Aware, therefore, of the necessity for 
space, the Professor must have imagined he had allowed room sufficient 
to anticipate those accidents which he was contemplating, when the 
passage was indited. The reader may, therefore, reasonably conjecture 
that, when proposing the above measurement, the Professor not only 
thought he had permitted every requisite freedom, but that he had even 
provided large marginal capacity for extraordinary occasions. 

Certainly, when compared with the vast majority of existing door- 
ways, the proposed entrance may be viewed as exceeding the utmost 
limit of boundless liberality. The next sentence encountered in the 
book already referred to, apprises the reader that "three feet six inches 
is the usual width of a stable doorway; a few are four feet." Conse- 
quently, the author of " Stable Economy," warming as he contemplates 
the munificence of his conception, adds, "no care is necessary, when taking 
a horse through a space five feet wide and eight feet six inches high !" 

Nevertheless, though the difference between the height and bulk of 
man and horse is altogether in favor of the animal, there are many doors 
admitting people to human habitations, which considerably exceed the 
dimensions laid down by a kindly disposed and an amiable writer, as 
the utmost space necessary for man and horse, simultaneously, to pass 
through. Within the domiciles of the lesser creature, it is by no means 
a rarity to discover entrances of a much greater height than Professor 
Stewart allows his imaginary model stable to possess. 

Many gentlemen love to own tall horses. Persons having such a 
taste will not look at an animal unless it stands sixteen hands high; 
or unless it will measure five feet four inches from the top margin of the 
withers to the ground. The foregoing measurement, however, does not 
allow for the head and neck, which, though not reckoned in the general 
estimate of equine altitude, still cannot be left behind when the horse 
quits the stable. Some animals exceed sixteen hands : such quadrupeds, 
if they carried high crests, would have to lower their ears when passing 
under one of those beams which the learned Professor evidently intended 
to be so lofty as should release the groom from every care, and free him 
from all responsibility. 

It is by no means unusual to encounter a man who stands more than 



236 • FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

six feet in his stockings. Such persons, when seated, measure at least 
three feet from the crown of the head to the cushion of the chair. One 
yard, therefore, added to the height of the horse makes more than eight 
feet; or, allowing for saddle, hair of rider, etc., approaches unpleasantly 
close to the highest point of that space which was to release a groom 
from every care. 

Some persons prefer to mount in the stable. Many horses will only, 
while there, allow a rider to quietly cross their backs. Most gentlemen 
have their hats on before the feet are placed in the stirrups. But sup- 
posing a tall man to get upon a high horse, the covering to his head 
must be extremely shallow if it is to receive no damage Avhen passing 
through the doorway which, the reader has Professor Stewart's assur- 
ance, is so lofty as to dispense with every care ! 

To ride out of the stable is very far from an eccentric habit. A model 
door should, therefore, contemplate the passage of any ordinary sized 
horse, with any rider of average proportions seated upon its back. The 
tallest man probable, as well as the smallest possible, should be equally 
accommodated by its dimensions. A model door ought to provide for 
every customary purpose. When considering such a structure, it is not 
sufficient that its size is proportioned to the majority of purposes, but it 
should be fit for all, save only very extraordinary uses. 

The width customary with such entrances — " three feet six inches " — 
must not be passed over unnoticed, if only to convince the reader of the 
entire inadequacy of such a space. The author, however, could readily 
point to many stable doors of even narrower capacit}^ than is implied in 
the foregoing limitation; but having bound himself not to adduce his 
own experience, he gladly accepts Professor Stewart's testimony con- 
cerning those things which are to be reviewed in this place. 

When a horse is led, not ridden, out of the stable, the groom com- 
monly proceeds according to the following method : The man grasps a 
rein, and, walking by the side of the animal, servant and slave pass the 
threshold together. The three feet six inches of clear space has to per- 
mit the passage of two bodies at the same moment ; therefore, dividing 
the allotted width, and giving half to each, allows one foot nine inches 
as the share of either. A groom, however, when in full livery, and 
within his own dominion, is an important personage. He permits no 
familiarity from his inferiors ; he expects only proper behavior from the 
horse, while he is beneath the shadow of his realm. That gi'oom must 
be devoid of all self-esteem, and unworthy of his post, who 'could allow 
the cleanliness of his costume to be soiled or the polish of his boots to 
be sullied ! 

A person of ordinary stature, and in average health, will measure, 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



23t 



across the shoulders, from seventeen to twenty inches. An animal of 
moderate size can barely squeeze through a clear gap of twenty-two 
inches width. Then, taking the man at the lowest standard, and adding 
seventeen to twenty-two inches, we obtain thirty-nine inches, as the 
smallest amount of room which servant and quadruped could manage 
to pass through. Such a close measurement, however, supposes the 
two living beings to touch one another, as M'ell as to graze the sides of 
the passage. Against such gross usage, the innate dignity of cockade, 
leathers, and riding coat would alike protest ! 

Three feet six inches, however, allow exactly one inch to divide the 
door posts from the man and from the horse ; while an inch also remains 
to separate the dignity of the domestic from the simplicity which it is 
conducting. The margin is not very ample ; and both creatures must 
march with uncommon steadiness for neither of the animals to touch the 
posts, or to rub against the other. 

Five feet, certainly, afford more ample quarters. Through such a 
frame both man and horse, supposing each to be quietly disposed, may 
pass with ease. Even so vast a limit, however, will not allow the groom 
to dispense with every care. An animal may, reasonably, be delighted 
when it sniffs the fresh air ; and it may 
be permitted to perform a few pranks, 
as it quits positive stagnation to make 
the nearest approach to freedom which 
its enslaved condition can sanction. 
School-boys do not observe any sever- 
ity of order, when they cast aside their 
tasks to throng into the play-ground. 
Yet the youths are confined to study 
only for a comparatively short period. 
But what must be the feelings of the 
steed, when leaving the heated stable 
and the narrow stall, where it has prob- 
ably been imprisoned for twenty -two 
consecutive hours ? 

Who among us, if he had the power, 
would check the graceful prancings and 
elegant curvetings, by which a simple 
nature announces its sense of happi- 
ness ? To human feeling, an idea of 
having to carry another's weight, in the 

direction and at the pace the rider pleases to command ; to have a sharp 
bit pulled against the tender angles of the lips ; to be flogged with a 




>>- 



"down ix the hip;" or a horse ■with the 
bone of one hip jractured. 



238 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

heavy whip, or goaded with sharp spurs, — conjures up an image calcu- 
lated to awaken no special delight. But long imprisonment may induce 
that eagerness to breathe the air of heaven, which may possibly render 
the prospect of labor, beyond the confines of its jail, welcome to the 
captive. 

Quadrupeds have been injured while passing through the widest of 
modern entrances. The pleasure of escaping from the tedium and from 
the faintness of actual stagnation generates a joy which banishes the 
sense of prudence. All feeling and every caution appear to be engulfed 
in the exultation of the moment. The horse dances as it walks ; the tail 
is gayly whisked ; the neck is arched ; the mane is shaken and the body 
is twisted, by those numberless undulations which have often excited 
the admiration of enthusiastic spectators. If, during one of these ex- 
pressive movements, the trunk should be inflected more than the seven 
inches which the five feet allow, or the animal, influenced by the impetu- 
osity of excitement, should come in contact with the door post, the con- 
sequence may be fearful. The possibility of check, certainly, does not 
enter the thought of the joyous creature. The blow is proportioned to 
the heedlessness which induced it. A bone can be fractured on such an 
occasion ; nor is it an unusual accident. Most horses which are beheld 
with one "hip down," have had the deformity produced by striking 
against the post of the stable door. 

"Down in the hip," is a groom's phrase, and merely signifies that 
one of the prominences of the haunch-bone, or, employing anatomical 
language, that one of the inferior spinous processes of the ileum, has 
been broken off. This osseous projection is of great importance to the 
value of the quadruped; it gives origin to numerous muscles, but more 
particularly to the powerful extensors of the hind limb. That ease, 
grace, and rapidity with which the member should be moved are by this 
misfortune destroyed, and the animal is thereby unfitted for the more 
highly esteemed half of its future services. By the accident it loses caste, 
and moves downward in the scale of equine employments. 

This terrible affliction to the life principally concerned may also be 
occasioned in another manner. Grooms, when leading a horse from the 
stable, commonly walk by the side of the animal. Such persons are 
usually fully dressed to attend their masters, when called upon to per- 
form this duty. Thus arrayed, the vanity of these men is extreme. 
Their importance almost exacts homage from the quadruped upon which 
it is their office to attend. Should the creature in its joy, when passing 
through the doorway, touch the coat of the domestic, such familiarity 
elicits the utmost indignation. Pride frowns at the pollution of its vest- 
ments. A loud word, a kick or a blow, instantly resents the insult. The 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



239 



animal, in terror, skips about to avoid further punishment. The door 
post is struck; the haunch is fractured, or the pain is inflicted which 
renders the creature, with its retentive memory, ever after fearful when 
passing through an entrance. 




-.. --.— .^r ii 



BOLTINa IHKOUGH THE STABLE DOOR. 



The ordinary life of a domesticated horse is so monotonous that 
recollection of events cannot otherwise than be retained. The animal 
subsequent to such a calamity, even though no bone should be fractured, 
cannot gaze upon a door with calmness. In future, alarm is exhibited 
whenever an entrance has to be approached. Ip cannot enter or quit its 
abiding-place without displaying those symptoms of terror which to the 
groom are the representatives only of inveterate "vice." The most 
violent or the blandest of tones cannot restore placidity to the brain 
which is troubled by fearful recollections. It is useless to coax, to 
threaten, or to punish : the animal has no ability to assume its former 
quietude when passing through the terrible opening. But it strives to 
brace up its nerves for the performance of the necessary act. All its 
resolution is summoned, till, maddened by excitement, it wildly dashes 
through the entrance, dragging after it the boy to whose custody the 
more dangerous quadrupeds are usually intrusted by the prudent sagacity 
of stable-men. 



240 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

Terror, once generated in the equine brain, is never removed, until 
years of misery have ruined the health and destroyed the spirit of the 
horse; rendering it a mere suffering machine, careless of the present 
and hopeless for the future. The weight of affliction which nearly all 
of the unhappy race have to sustain, as age increases, changes the tem- 
per and the bearing of the creature. Its prostrated existence seems 
almost to have become indifferent to human malice. Mankind would, 
certainly, not be the less happy could they be induced to trust in the 
goodness which their Heavenly Father has placed around them ; would 
they discard those doubts and abandon that defiance which implies a 
belief only in the existence of evil. 

With regard to the subject on which recent comments have been 
based, horsemen should order their servants never to walk through a 
doorway by the side of the quadruped, which general belief supposes to 
be led through such openings. 

A boy should not be employed in such an office. Prior to leaving 
the building, the groom should place himself directly in front of his 
charge. A short hold of either rein should then be taken in each hand. 
When there located, he can with ease and certainty guide the head of 
the horse. The motions of the head regulate the movements of the 
body, and having the controlling power entirely at his command, the 
servant should commence to back slowly out of the stable. However, 
there is one objection to the proposed method, which is the rightful 
mode of proceeding. In the majority of London stables there is but 
one man, who acts as groom, as coachman, and occasionally as pad 
groom, or the servant who rides after his employer. This personage 
being in front of the creature's nose, should the horse sneeze, cough, 
or clear its nostrils, any ejected matter must alight upon the highly- 
decorated garments of the man. The self-love of the individual fears 
such a mishap to the luster of his afternoon's costume; when the inter- 
ests of the proprietor are opposed to the vanity of ignorance, no spirit 
of prophecy is needed to pronounce on which side victory will be de- 
clared ! These accidents may be greatly mitigated by the hat being 
laid aside, as from all else the soil may be removed, and leave no stain 
behind. 

Supposing this obvious recommendation to be adopted, should any 
symptom of alarm or any disposition to display restiveness chance to be 
exhibited, progress must be immediately stopped; nor ought it to be 
again resumed, until the animal has thoroughly recovered its composure. 
No matter how long a period may be required to restore tranquillity, the 
groom should, contentedly, continue stationary till every sign of timidity 
is banished or dispelled. In such a manner, servant and quadruped 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



241 



should leave the building : nor ought the man to quit his post before the 
doorway has been more than cleared. 




LEADING A HORSE THROUGH THE STABLE DOORWAY. 



It must certainly be read with a sensation of surprise that, since a 
stable was first erected, horses have been constantly injured by passing 
through narrow doorways. It will assuredly excite wonder that, after 
centuries of experience, enforced by serious loss, the easy, safe, and 
natural remedy for such miscalled "accidents" needs to be gravely 
pointed out, or to be promulgated as it were a novel suggestion. The 
mind of the master has, however, been otherwise engaged ; the horse 
has never been regarded as a living creature, having certain attributes 
and rights, with which all keepers of the quadrupeds must comply. It 
is rather viewed as "something" absolutely given to mankind, concern- 
ing which the human being has, therefore, merely to consult his will and 
his pleasure. Consequently, when regulations are formed for the gov- 
ernment of the equine race, these are never framed as though there 

16 



242 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

were the liabits, the instincts, and the wants of an existence to be con- 
sidered. 

The assumed evil disposition of the most placid of beings has been 
wrongfully abused as the cause of every injury. The possibility of so 
groundless a reason being advanced to cover that carelessness which 
provoked punishment, is by no means complimentary to the wisdom of 
mankind. The care needful for the safe guidance of a timid animal is 
denied; the trifling outlay which would secure the immunity of the 
creature is selfishly withheld. Nevertheless, how frequent and how 
poignant is the lamentation, which complains that horse flesh is a " very 
hazardous species of property I" Yet, when investigated, what does the 
cry import, more than that a beautiful living body is not sent upon earth 
superior to man's power of abuse ? 

Nature endowed the horse with every faculty needed to enjoy the 
freest existence on the most extended plane. It was created the grace- 
ful embodiment of the wildest liberty ! The classic mind rightfully re- 
cognized its attributes ; for by it, as Pegasus, the boldest flight of a poet's 
fancy was significantly allegorized. The ancient intellect, in its fresh- 
ness, beheld in the steed the fitting representative of that which prisons 
should not confine, neither should chains fetter. Yet, formerly, the full 
truthfulness of the image was but partially demonstrated. Years of 
after-experience have shown the animal can thrive in opposite regions ; 
it can live on almost every variety of sustenance ; it propagates its race 
under the extremes of too much care and of absolute neglect ; the creat- 
ure which man sorrows over as so very delicate has the strength of a 
giant, the docility of a dog, and a constitution which is well characterized 
by a proverbial expression, "strong as a horse!" 

The boasted civilization of the present age has degraded the animal 
into a living type of stagnant misery ! It was gifted by its Creator with 
a speed which defied pursuit ; with a sight which could endure the sun's 
fiercest ray, or could penetrate the darkness of the night ; and it was 
gifted with the recognition which is telescopic in its range of inquiry. 
It was sent upon this earth with an ample nostril, and a sense of smell 
capable of appreciating the varied odors of an Eastern plain. How has 
human perversity distorted the intentions of Beneficence ! Now it is 
locked into an outhouse, where either total darkness prevails, or the eye 
is fastened close to a whitened surface. It is tied to a manger, while the 
floor on which it stands so slants as must banish ease from the feet, and 
the partitions which confine the body prevent rest from change of posi- 
tion. If the place is cold, the creature's home is possessed of no means 
to counteract the effect. If it should be warm, it is eontaminated by 
the fermentation of filth ; the air is loaded with gas, which must pain 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 243 

the nerves, occasion the eyes to smart, disgust the fine sense of smell, 
and destroy the health by preventing perfect oxygenation of the blood. 

Misery, solitude, and confinement will generate disease in a man. 
Wherefore should an animal be esteemed superior to such influences ? 
Impure air, sameness of food, and being tied to a manger, inducing fee- 
ble bodily health, gradually undermine the powerful equine constitution. 
Other evils, of a local nature, result from causes which might easily be 
removed, were man, in his wisdom, only convinced such influences ought 
to be destroyed. The forelegs of the stabled horse are always the first 
to yield. Yet the prisoner may endure severe lameness in these mem- 
bers, and, nevertheless, the body be so slightly sympathetic with the 
afifliction as actually to lay on fat. It is diiferent with the hinder limbs ! 
Should one of these last be injured, the entire frame languishes. The 
quadruped then evidently pines in torture, and its flesh sensibly wastes. 

Yery different is the manner in which various physiologists account 
for this peculiarity. Some appeal to the greater proximity of the an- 
terior extremities to the heart, or to the center of circulation. That, 
perhaps, is the generally received doctrine ; but as the free circulation of 
the blood is essential to the healthy functions of the nerves, it is diflicult 
to comprehend why nearness to the heart should deprive a nerve of its 
ability to communicate sensation. The head is supposed to be rendered 
conspicuously sensitive, because of the great proportionate quantity of 
blood which circulates in that region. The pretended rule, therefore. 
will not bear the test of general application ; it must be discarded as an 
assertion boldly put forward to cover ignorance. 

The forefeet of the horse are those portions of the frame which have 
to endure the utmost limits of mortal perversity. The flooring of the 
stall invariably inclines from the manger to the gangway. The hind 
hoofs may, should the animal hang back the full length of its collar-rope, 
rest in the open drain with the toes downward ; or the hind hoofs may, 
in some cases, stand upon the gangway, the width of which the gutter 
defines. The front limbs, however, can scarcely change their position. 
The hoofs must rest upon the slanting bricks, which incline the anterior 
of the foot in the upward direction. The forelegs must sustain, and 
continue subject to the unnatural stress of their enforced position. 
This silly and arbitrary arrangement in some nieasure accounts for the 
fact that the front limbs of the horse are the first parts of the body to 
fail, for these parts never, in the stable, are capable of rest, nor can they 
be sensible to ease. 

It has, of late years, become the general practice to bleed the horse 
from the sole of the forefoot. When such a custom is adopted, the 
first portion of blood extracted is, commonly, cold as spring-water, or 



241 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



from thirty to forty degrees below the stand5,rd recognized as "blood 
heat." Now, a certain warmth is imperative to the existence of vitality, 
which is arrested so soon as the natural heat of the body is sensibly 
diminished. The functions are stayed when any region has parted with 
its caloric. Dentists take advantage of this fact when, after having 
employed the chilling process, they extract a tooth without pain. Cold, 
therefore, which can. destroy sensation in the human jaw, likewise ren- 
ders the foot of the horse insensible to agony. 

But why is the foreleg subject to a degree of cold which does not also 
aflfect the hind extremity of the animal ? Because the stable permits the 
hind limbs to enjoy the greater freedom of action. These may be in 
perpetual motion ; for the posterior membei's are situated at the boundary 
of a circle, of which the ring of the manger represents the center or 
fixed point. Has the reader ever beheld a column of soldiers move in 
obedience to the oflScer's command, to "Wheel ?" The man at one end 
of the hne can hardly run quickly enough, while he who is placed at the 
opposite extremity is troubled to be sufficiently slow in his movements. 
Now, the hind legs of the horse represent the man who has to scamper, 
and are sensibly exerted whenever the quadruped "comes over;" the 
anterior extremities are types of the soldier who scarcely moves, for 
very seldom are these members necessitated to change their position. 
Their stable office is to uphold the body, and 
to remain fixed while the toes are inclined up- 
ward ! Were the motion permitted to both 
extremities equalized, the fore limbs would 
naturally be the warmest, since the great dis- 
tance from the heart and the greater angularity 
of form must render circulation of caloric 
within the quarters much more tardy. 

But why do not other parts become as cold 
as the fore limbs, when all belong to the same 
body, and all derive their heat from one com- 
mon medium, or from the same circulation? 
The veins in the legs have valves. Then, if 
these vessels are so provided, and the distribu- 
tion of warmth is one of the purposes of the 
circulation, why do not the valves favor the 
return of blood from the foot, and thus generate 
heat within the member ? When answering 
the foregoing inquiries, the reader's patience is entreated, since the reply, 
to be intelligible, cannot also be concise. 

Anatomy affords the best explanation of the peculiarity. On remov- 




TALVES OF THE VEINS IV THE LEG 

1. The valves of the vein laid 
against the side of the vessel by 
the upward current of the blood. 

2. The valves projected from 
the sides of the vessel by the at- 
tempted retrogression of the vital 
stream. 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 245 

ing the horny case from the hoof of a dead horse, a secretive membrane 
is exposed; this membrane constantly renews the horn. Beneath the 
secreting surface, a complex mesh-work of large veins is discovered, 
which, by their size, inform us they serve as receptacles or sinuses quite 
as much as vessels. These veins have no valves, though such are com- 
monly present in other tubes of the same class. The absence of this 
provision is, in them, remarkable, because the blood- has to move against 
gravity ; valves are a means instituted to favor the current under cir- 
cumstances of this nature. Valves are composed of duplicatures of the 
lining membrane of veins : when the venous current flows toward the 
heart, these valves, by the impetus of the stream, are forced upward, 
and remain close against the sides of the vessels; but, should the 
slightest retrogression of the current be endangered, the backward mo- 
tion of the blood carries the numerous valves outward or downward, and 
effectually locks the interior of the veins. 

The anatomy of the foot, however, proves the horse unsuited to con- 
finement. The animal was created to dwell upon the plain. The foot, 
for its health, requires perpetual motion. "When free, or before man 
subjected it to his convenience, every bite the creature took necessitated 
a fresh step. The mesh-work of veins was large, the vessels freely com- 
municated with each other, and were devoid of valves, that the blood 
might readily flow into, while it might as readily be expelled from, the 
tubes ; and because, in the habits of her creature, nature had established 
a force which rendered the development of valves unnecessary. The 
horse, as it progressed, alternately lifted the foot from the earth and 
rested it upon the ground. When the hoof was raised, the blood rushed 
into and filled the mesh-work of veins. When the foot was again placed 
upon the soil, the superimposed weight squeezed the vessels, between the 
bones and the horn, thus pumping out the blood, or forcing it toward the 
heart. 

Blood which has become cold has lost the first of its living properties. 
Blood deprived of heat cannot support health, or supply secretion. 
Hence the feet of stabled horses — notwithstanding the care of science, 
the numerous applications, and the endless variety of shoes, all of which 
are designed to benefit the hoofs — generally become diseased. The 
quadruped of the agriculturist, although it be neglected and badly shod, 
yet, because of its slow or constant work, and habitual freedom in the 
field, usually exhibits feet which are sound and open. The donkey, 
though much abused and shamefully treated, rarely inhabits a stable, 
and more seldom enters a stall. Its feet become misshapen; but the 
curse of the gentleman's steed, foot lameness, and especially navicular 
disease, are all but unknown among this tribe of the equine race. 




246 FAVLTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

The foregoing statement also affords an explanation why the most 
valuable or the stabled horse is so frequently afflicted with contracted 
hoof, with brittle hoof, with an unhealthy secretion of horn, and with the 
various other ailments which may be classed under the diseases of the 
foot. It likewise supplies the most clear reason for the beginning of 
that disorder which has been denominated "the curse of good horse 
flesh" — Navicularthritis, or ulceration of the navicular bone. Bone is 
slow to take on morbid action, and ulceration is the accompaniment of 
low vitality. When the circulation is retarded, the animal powers are 
enfeebled. Ulceration, affecting a lowly organized structure, is that 
which a pathologist would anticipate as the consequence of prolonged 
inaction. It is impossible to say what evils 
the continuance of such a condition may not 
induce ; but sand-crack, seedy-toe, and various 
painful affections can be clearly traced to have 
thus originated. 

The effect of the stable, also, accounts for 
the farmer riding his nag for many years, while 
THE VEINS OF THE HORSE'S FOOT, fsw gcntlcmen approvc of a horse for saddle 
The mesh-work of veins -with- purposcs after it has passcd the sixth sum- 

out valves, which are situated ira- '■ ^ '■ 

medhiteiy under the secretive mem- jner notwithstanding their auimals are better 

brane of the hoof. ' ° 

groomed and more carefully fed. In the coun- 
try, farmers' quadrupeds are generally turned into the field, and have to 
walk for their living. Grass is a poor food ; but the constant exercise 
keeps the creatures in sounder health than can be maintained by better 
sustenance combined with perpetual confinement. 

An absolute necessity for the constant movement of the feet is to be 
deduced from the arrangement of the vessels. The arterial blood falls 
almost perpendicularly down the fore limb, while the venous blood has 
likewise to ascend against gravity. This an-angement rendered impera- 
tive some propelling force to return the effete fluid ; hence the necessity 
for the perpetual employment of the squeezing or pumping action of the 
hoof The habits of the animal to graze only from choice portions of 
the herbage occasion a vast distance to be traversed ; but such leisurely 
sauntering was, by nature, kindly intended to keep sound that portion of 
the frame on the integrity of which the safety, the welfare, and the 
pleasure of her creation was dependent. 

"Certainly," the reader may exclaim; "but if the warmth of the 
body is dependent upon arterial blood, the coldness of a part cannot be 
accounted for by stating the facility afforded for the oxygenating current 
reaching that which is chilled." Very true. But before any substance 
can fall down, the space through which it has to pass in its descent must 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



24^ 



be made clear. The quickness with which the arterial blood reaches the 
foot is, consequently, regulated by the speed with which the venous cur- 
rent is expelled. The hoof of the stabled horse is constantly congested, 
or the effete blood accumulates within the horn ; because motion, in the 
venous stream, is impossible. The current hardly stirs, and the fluid, 
by stagnation, becomes cold. Did the possibility of action allow the 
pumping force fair play, then the forefoot would, doubtless, be as warm 
as other parts of the animal's system. 

Anatomy demonstrates these facts ; but the habits of the quadruped 
have never been attentively noted. Had the instinctive promptings of 
its desires been studied with a wish to profit by such instruction, stables 
had been erected for some better purpose than to closely confine an 
active animal, and to illustrate the earliest principles of surface drainage. 
As it is, a building has been raised totally inadequate to its pretended 
uses, and one in the arrangement of which the convenience of man has 
alone been consulted. In such a place, a horse has, for ages, been im- 







.^^^•^'1 



^'"^^^^fe 



HOESBS, WHEN FREE TO CHOOSE, ALWAYS STAND WITH THE FOREHOOFS 02J A LOWER LEVEL THAN THAT 
OCCDPIED BY THE HIND FEET. 



prisoned. It is true, the captive did not thrive. Yet this consequence 
was rather excused than inquired into. Humanity has endured loss, 



248 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



disappointment, and vexation; but pride found it more agreeable to 
accuse the works of Heaven with the results of its own culpability than 
to suspect the adequacy of its own institutions. Nature has, in vain, 
labored to instruct the waywardness of conceit. Mankind could endure 
all evils 'before it could afford to question the perfectibility of mortal 
invention. 

Horses, when disposed to remain stationary, always select ground 
where the forefeet can occupy a position lower than the hind legs. In 
stables, this inclination is reversed, the hinder limbs invariably resting on 
an inferior level to what the forefeet range upon. The motive upon 
which the dictates of nature are outraged is the facility which a floor 
slanting in the backward direction affords for surface moisture to flow 
into the open gutter that runs along the extreme margin of the gangway. 
Science, evidently, has not been consulted in an arrangement which sac- 
rifices the health and the comfort of an inhabitant of the stall to obtain so 
obvious, gross, and poor an advantage. Stables, evidently, were built 
only to please the fancy, and pi'opitiate the prejudices of ignorant pro- 
prietors. No thought was bestowed upon the quadrupeds such edifices 
pretended to accommodate. The consequence is seen in the discomfort, 
torture, and the speedy decline of lives which are forced to dwell within 
one of these notorious charnel-houses. 




WHEN CONFIXED TO THE STALL, IIOKSES GENERALLY STAND WITH THE HIND FEET UPON A LOWER LEVEL 
THAN THE FOREHOOFS OCCUPr. 



Knowing the object desired, the reader will naturally expect to be in- 
formed whether dryness is secured by the present arrangement. When 
answering this inquiry, the author must describe the general plan accord- 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 249 

ing to which the floors of most stables are laid down. The pavement 
of the stalls is composed of small, hard bricks, known as " Dutch Clink- 
ers. " Bricks, however nicely they may be placed, cannot form an abso- 
lutely smooth or even surface. They must present spaces in which fluid 
will be retained ; and, being porous, bricks cannot prevent effluvia from 
rising through their substances, or cannot hinder liquid from percolating 
into the soil on which they rest. The urine acquires acrimony as it 
corrupts beneath the pavement, which makes a renewal of the flooring 
of a stall an efficient reason for ordering the inhabitants of a large build- 
ing to be removed, since the pavement will have to be disturbed. 

To demonstrate that the urine of the horse undergoes a speedy change 
when exposed to the action of the atmosphere : the fresh fluid will pro- 
duce no change in litmus paper; but after a few minutes' exposure, the 
liquid changes the blue dye to a red color, having, in the brief interval, 
become acid, and in that condition it yields strong fumes of ammoniacal 
gas. It is the presence of this gas that chiefly occasions that peculiar 
pungency which is characteristic of the stable. 

To promote such an alteration, and to procure from the excretion the 
greatest possible amount of noxious effluvia, the liquid is made to gently 
flow over an open, a rough, an uneven, and a slanting surface; thus sub- 
jecting the greatest possible quantity to the direct action of the atmos- 
phere. Should not the whole change be thereby accomplished, the fluid 
slowly drains into an open gutter, which slopes so gradually that its 
contents frequently refuse to move. Had the architect who originally 
laid down the plan of a modem stable designed to make the interior 
poisonous, it would have been difficult, having no more active agent at 
command, for him to have conceived means better calculated to fulfill 
his object. 

The groom, to warm the place, stops up every crevice through which 
the vapor could escape, or pure air could find admission. Many stable- 
men, also, exclude the light, under a groundless notion that horses thrive 
best when in the dark. Darkness does not necessarily lead to sleep — 
it simply disables one of the senses ; thereby animal life is deprived of a 
harmless enjoyment, while at the same time the exclusion of light causes 
the eye to shrink from the glare of day ; while the continuance of the 
evil is likely to induce blindness. Hours of weariness, passed in a con- 
fined space, and within a tainted atmosphere, are strange means when 
employed to promote extraordinary thrift. More especially, when we 
consider that the inclination of the floor forbids rest to the feet, while 
the exclusion of light incapacitates all visual recreation. 

Horses, not having a knowledge of chemistry, cannot, of themselves, 
purify the air ; but certain animals, instructed by their instincts, do all 



280 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



in their power to counteract the evils which the slanting nature of the 
flooring has a tendency to produce. Such steeds lean first upon one foot 
and then upon the other ; thus the entire weight bears alternately upon 
either hoof, while each is in turn released from all pressure. If not 
checked, quadrupeds will often continue thus employed for hours. XJie 
creatures know nothing concerning the structures of their own bodies; 
but the most learned physiologist could not have invented any plan bet- 
ter calculated to supply the pumping action which accompanies the 
walk, and promotes a healthy circulation, thus securing soundness to 
the hoof. 

Indeed, human intelligence would appear to be incapable of appre- 
ciating the benefit which must result from the simple artifice of an inferior 
being. The animal which is detected when endeavoring to correct the 
evils of mortal perversity, is always severely punished. The indulgence 
is, by the pure mind of the groom, recognized as a wicked "vice," and 
is stigmatized under the term of "weaving." The highly intelligent 




horse is fiercely lashed for laboring to prevent the consequences of man's 
stupidity, and for striving to improve its master's property, while solac- 
ing its confinement, by an act as harmless as it is innocent. 

A creature standing on a slanting floor, with the head pointing to the 
most elevated part of the incline, occupies the same relative situation 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 251 

which the bodj would possess, were the quadruped journeying up the 
side of a hill. By the sloping nature of the ground, the weight of the 
frame is partially removed from the insensitive bones ; and to such an 
extent as the osseous structures are relieved, is the burden thrown upon 
the flexor tendons, or upon the back sinews. It is imperative for the 
health of bone that it should endure almost continuous pressure. On 
the other hand, tendon or sinew feels no pain from occasional tension ; 
but pressure, if long sustained, produces the acutest agony. "When one 
structure is denied to fulfill the uses for which it was created, and another 
structure is condemned to discharge services for which it never was 
designed, the first soon degenerates, from not having sufficient employ- 
ment, while the second speedily becomes disorganized, from the necessity 
to perform too much labor. 

Bone, tendon, and cellular tissue almost compose the shin and the foot 
of the animal. Horsemen know how difficult it is to make and keep the 
legs of a stabled quadruped hard and fine. It is, however, folly to rub 
and to bandage while inactivity is permitted to generate congestion. 
No application can possibly destroy the effect while that cause is allowed 
to be in operation. Nor can the foot secrete sound horn while the exer- 
cise which is imperative for health is withheld. No shoe can give that 
which is dependent upon motion. There are many more pieces of iron 
curved, hollowed, raised, and indented, than the author has cared to 
enumerate. All, however, have failed to restore health to the hoof. 
Some, by enforcing a change of position, may, for a time, appear to 
mitigate the evil ; but none can, in the long run, cure the disorder under 
which the horn evidently suffers. 

Anointing the hoof, or using various stoppings, are equally fruitless. 
Both leg and foot, after a day of hard labor, only return to the stable to 
undergo more excessive, because more continuous, fatigue. The sloping 
pavement renders ease an impossibility. The exhaustion cannot be ban- 
ished from limbs forced to occupy such ground. Longer rest but induces 
additional enervation. 

The inquiry suggested by the above remarks is, whether a horse does 
not return with eagerness to its stable ? Is it natural for a creature to 
exhibit eagerness when it enters the abode of its agony ? In answer to 
the foregoing, it may be advanced that all grades of inferior life which 
exist under the care of man are in so unnatural a condition as allows no 
inference to be drawn from apparently voluntary actions. Birds were 
intended to cleave the aii". No one can believe but the goldfinch must 
be more happy when bathing its wings in light, and freely sailing on the 
atmosphere, than when the gay spirit is cramped within one of those 
small cages in which certain people delight to confine the joyous heart. 



252 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

Yet, let the bird be captured and immured within such a space. After 
some time, it will require perseverance to drive the feathered captive 
from the prison which must make stiff the wings and cause the breast 
to sorrow. The act, however, will be difiQcult; when accomplished, 
unless the wire door be closed, the shelter of its inadequate abode will 
be speedily sought again. Do birds, therefore, love to be caught, and 
to be caged ? 

Should the above instance not be perfectly satisfactory, another is 
ready to illustrate the subject. Everybody has heard of the French 
noble, who had grown old, gray, and feeble while in durance. The 
gentleman, when released from the Bastile, shed tears, entreating to be 
restored to his cell. Are we, therefore, to infer that the French love 
imprisonment? Each case may, perhaps, be interpreted to exemplify 
the power of habit. One year of sheer animal life will stand against a 
long term of human existence. A horse lives in the facts which sur- 
round it. It exists in the present, and has no imagination to embitter 
the hardness of its fate. Man is always escaping from the circumstances 
which engirt him; he is always fancying something brighter than his 
present lot, or is straining toward the future ; he may be said to exist 
most in anticipation. Give humanity no prospect to dwell upon, deny 
it all hope to contemplate, the soul sinks into utter dejection; and a 
palace or a jail are alike regarded with indifference. 

The horse was, by nature, formed to be the companion and the servant 
of man. The original of the breed, which in animals intended for the 
wild state it is difficult to destroy, is, with the equine race, unknown- 
It is, in heart, in body, and in soul, the obedient servant and willing 
helpmate of the human race. It does not submit to its doom ; its lot is 
accepted as a foregone decision ; it has abandoned every thought of lib- 
erty, and has embraced its fate. But is it worthy of the intelligence to 
which the creature has devoted its existence, to convert such perfect and 
entire abnegation of self into a reason for perpetuating those tortures 
that were invented by barbarity, and are, it is hoped, only continued 
through ignorance ? The reader needs no prompting to afford the fitting 
answer. 

This question is not affected by the love or hatred of the animal for 
the stable. The only point which really remains to be decided is, does 
the stable, as at present built, represent the most healthful and the most 
pleasant abode which man's imagination can picture for his tired and 
submissive companion ? If it be possible to suppose a better home for 
the quadruped, then it becomes the moral duty of man to raise such a 
structure. All pretenses about the sacrifice of existing property and the 
regards for pecuniary outlay are. of no weight when urged against a 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



253 



rightful obligation. Man is blessed with reason, and is constituted, in 
this world, the only judge of his own actions. So high a privilege should 
bind him to be eyen more than just in his decisions ! 

To return. The reader will observe that, in the sketch No. 1, the 
bones rest one upon the other. That arrangement ensues when the 



No. 2. 





THE 8TEESS ENDURED BY THE DIFFERENT STRUCTtJRES 'WHICn COMPOSE THE LEQ OF THE HORSE IS 
DEPENDENT UPON THE POSITION OP THE FOOT. 



animal descends an incline. There can exist no man but must have en- 
joyed the ease which is imparted by walking down a slop-e. Every person 
must also be acquainted with the fatigue consequent upon ascending an 
acclivity. The effect is generally explained by stating that, in one case 
progression is favored by, while in the other it is made in opposition to, 
gravitation. Such a cause, certainly, is in operation ; but the different 
structures on which the strain reposes, when moving in opposite direc- 
tions, to the author's mind supply a better illustration of the fact. 

Do not muscles, and does not tendon participate in the burden which 
is upheld by bone? Assuredly they do ; but in various degrees. No 
limb can move unless some muscle contracts. Every muscle in the body 
arises from bone, and is inserted into bone by the interposition of liga- 
mentous fiber. Before a member can be elevated or depressed, some 
muscle must drag from some bone, that it may move some other bone 
more distantly situated. Then, tendon cannot escape strain, since in no 
possible attitude is every portion of the frame in absolute rest. Motor 
muscles, however, generally exist in pairs. They are spoken of as ele- 
vators and as depressors, or as flexors and as extensors. Their uses are 
opposite, but not opposed. When one set works, the other is inactive. 

The bones in the sketch, indicated by No. 2, evidently press against 



254 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



the backward tendons. Such a position, if long maintained, leads to 
fatigue, and ultimately induces pain. Man cannot enjoy rest under such 
a condition of parts ; though both tendon and muscle are benefited by 
brief tension, continuous strain soon exhausts either structure. The 
reader must have beheld two travelers meet upon a mountain's side. 
One shall be descending from the heights, the other is ascending from the 
valley. But while the men converse, they do not hold their relative 
positions one to the other. Each, without thought or reflection, ex- 
changes it for the horizontal situation; while their dialogue lasts, both 
present their sides to the spectator. 

This is precisely what many horses learn to do. Much indignation 
is always excited in the groom's bosom because an animal, prompted by 
its instinct, has discovered a method of easing its limbs and of saving 
the master's property from injury. Standing for hours upon an acclivity, 
however gradual, throws stress upon the back sinews, and must pain the 
tired limbs. To counteract that efiFect, the animal turns the head from 




STANDING ACK0S8 THE STALL, 



the manger, and stands across the flooring of the stall, after the same 
plan as actuated the two travelers when they paused upon the mountain 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 255 

side. But the conduct which in man draws forth no remark, when ex- 
hibited by the horse is abominated by a virtuous groom as the declara- 
tion of inveterate "vice." 

Pitiable vice ! It is melancholy to behold a man cruelly punish an 
animal for a reasonable act. But heavy castigation does every horse 
receive that is guilty of exercising the instinct with which Heaven has 
endowed it. The groom^ being excited to resentment, grasps a stick and 
deals well-aimed blows, while his voice shouts foi'th harsh words, which 
pain and terrify the patient creature, whose only faults were too much 
sense and too great feeling. 

"When a horse is terrified, danger is likely to ensue in exact proportion 
to the smallness of that space which can be commanded for the display 
of its alarm. The timidity being excessive, of course the contortions 
of the body are equally demonstrative. The animal dashes about, re- 
gardless of its own safety, and heedless of those around it. It sees 
nothing; it can remember nothing, save only that some horrid torture is 
imminent. Its struggles are wild efforts to escape. In the momentary 
panic, it may break, or it may damage anything. It may kill any per- 
son who shall stand in its way, or, in the furore of its agony, it may, 
through misadventure, do serious mischief to its own body. 

Such consequences are always to be expected when a horse is beaten 
within the stable while the head is fastened to the manger. By the 
latter circumstance, the probability of an injury is increased. Harm, 
however, to his employer's property, danger to his own person, and peril 
to the safety of his charge, the groom despises, or willingly hazards, 
rather than allow an odious "vice" to escape correction! No severity, 
however, can teach a quadruped not to seek the ease which it has dis- 
covered the means of realizing. When the groom is absent, or during 
the night, the act of " wickedness " is always renewed, although, in the 
presence of its attendant, the indulgence may be suppressed. 

Slanting pavements likewise instruct horses in the practice of other 
habits which the groom, in his peculiar sphere of mental elevation, can- 
not otherwise than recognize as "vices." As such, he punishes their 
exhibition without mercy. Some public-house companion may visit the 
stable-man while he is dozing through the afternoon upon the locker. 
Most servants notoriously have no choice between stubborn duty and 
the relaxation of "pipe and pot." The groom is always the ready 
victim of temptation, and upon the slightest persuasion quits the stable 
for the parlor "over the road." Some sad and patient animal may have 
been silently watching, longing for the man's absence, during a consid- 
erable period ; no sooner does the creature hear the door slam, than it 
begins to take small steps backward. The horse thus feels its way till 



256 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



the sudden fall in the pavement announces that the posterior hoofs have 
reached the gutter, withiu the hollow of which the toes are immediately 
depressed. 

Such an attitude being attained, all stress upon the flexor tendons is 
removed from the backward legs. The bones, while the toes can bo 
depressed, sustain the weight of the haunches. Partial ease is thereby 
secured, and with the new sensation, a numbing torpor creeps over the 
animal. Its feelings are soothed by present pleasure, and the senses, 
thrown off their guard, grow dead to all outward impressions. The 
victim of former ages, when taken from the rack, must still have endured 
agony ; but the lull occasioned by the cessation of acute torture threw 
the sufferer into a lethargy, which is reported to have resembled the 
luxury of sleep. So is it with the horse. The forefeet are still under- 
going torment; but, under partial relief, the animal seems to doze, or 
becomes unconscious to the facts around it. 




THE raND FEET ARE EASED IS THE GUTTEE. 



The horse is tranquilly luxuriating, and cozily reveling in the moments 
of forbidden ease, when the groom quietly returns to the stable. His 
eyes rest upon that "abominable wicious creatur, agin brakin o' the 
law!" The animal has actually dared to indulge in so much ease as 



FAULTS INSEPAKABLE FROM STABLES. 25Y 

instinct can discover among the cruel invention of centuries by which 
its body is surrounded. The quadruped excites the more anger by 
seeming to enjoy its wickedness ! The groom is infuriated by the con- 
templation of such depravity! Beer and tobacco stimulate his indig- 
nation. He creeps slyly toward the whip, and commences to lash the 
culprit. 

Some persons may be inclined to suppose the being who has so recently 
deserted his post, ought to look indulgently on what he conceives to be 
the fault of another and of an inferior animal. But the vile always are 
the pitiless ; for charity is the foundation of all goodness. The lash is 
plied \vith energy — the groom, between every blow, lamenting "that he 
can't step away for a few moments, 'thout the plaguey brute being at its 
old tricks agin." The thong curls round the quivering and perspiring 
body. But severity in these cases is useless. The animal has discov- 
ered a partial solace for its misery; it cannot choose but indulge its 
• pleasurable knowledge at the very next opportunity. 

The stabled horse, however, has not only to stand upon a slanting 
pavement through the day; it must throughout the night lie upon a 
similar incline, rendered slippery by a covering of dry and polished 
straw. Did the reader ever attempt to repose upon a bed slightly out 
of the horizontal ? The body cannot rest on such a couch. The sensa- 
tion communicated is, an incessant fear of slipping off. The sleeper is 
constantly wakened up, with a vivid impression that he is falling, or has 
fallen, on to the floor. The night is passed in discomfort. But what is 
the excitability of a human being, when compared with the excessive 
fear which haunts the most timid of all created lives? 

Man, when in a bed of the above description, naturally grows rest- 
less; the bed-clothes are disturbed, and the body laid in an opposite 
direction. All will not allay anxiety; at last the would-be sleeper is 
obliged to remain contented with occasionally nudging himself higher 
on to the pillow. Like man is the horse in many things, even as though 
the animal studied and mimicked its master. Yet the inflation of pride 
hails the resemblance as an insult, and regards animals as things created 
for use, and doomed to be subservient to the caprice of mortal pleasure. 

Precisely as man would behave, did he chance to get upon a slanting 
bed, the animal conducts itself, only with such difference as the circum- 
stances enforce. The human being reclines his head upon a pillow. 
But the horse sinks the head while it slumbers. Man, therefore, nearly 
touches the board situated at the topmost part of his resting-place. 
Three feet, or even a larger space, may divide the quadruped from the 
stable wall which forms the extremity of its couch. The floor on which 
the creature lies is strewn with straw. That condition, however, rather 

17 



258 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

aggravates the inclination of the resting-place, for dried and glossy stems 
of a circular figure accelerate more than they retard the backward gravi- 
tation of the body. 

The creature therefore — unable to reason, acting under the impression 
that its body is continually sliding backward — endeavors to recover its 
original position by nudging itself repeatedly forward. The horse has 
neither light to see, hands to feel, nor sense to measure the distance. 
Imagination is the only dependence which it can boast of The advances 
become energetic in proportion as the supposition which provokes them 
is annoying. The annoyance is regulated by the irritability of the quad- 
ruped. Some stable inhabitants grow more morbidly nervous ; with 
these, the advances are proportionably frequent; so that the head of 
the captive, guided by the collar-rope, is speedily brought into violent 
contact with the further end wall of its compartment. 

Not comprehending the meaning of the blow, but suffering from pain 
and fright, the animal attempts to rise. The commencement of this 
movement always is the elevation of the head, which, after being raised, 
is strained backward. This action is a necessity of its existence ; and, 
dreaming of no danger, the quadruped essays to fulfill the natural law. 
The head, however, which has struck the wall of the stable, must at the 
time he immediately under the manger. Imagining no impediment, the 
animal exalts its crest with that impetuosity which characterizes all 
the motions of the horse. It strikes against the manger, and a heavy 
concussion sends the member into its original abiding-place. 

The stricken creature cannot comprehend the reason of those blows 
it has received. But it is often chastised for nothing, so beating is to it 
almost a matter of course. It crouches in terror for some moments, no 
doubt hoping its tormentor may move onward. Then, as the strained 
senses can detect no sound, it ventures once more to raise its head. The 
result is the same as it was before. The horse, after repeated efforts, 
becomes alarmed. Mad with fear, and wild with desperation, it now 
exerts its utmost strength. The contention may continue until the 
groom enters the stable in the morning, when, bruised and panting, 
its head swollen and bleeding, its strength exhausted and almost its 
life expended, the wretched animal is discovered prostrated upon the 
pavement. 

This consequence of confining an animal in darkness is the serious, 
and probably the permanent, deterioration of property. At the best, 
the services are lost for many days. In any case, time must be allowed 
for the necessary recovery. Few, very few people have the generosity 
to recognize, and even fewer still are educated to perceive, that a life has 
been for many hours breathing in agony, and that the existence may 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



259 



hereafter, notwithstanding all the present state of art can accomplish, 
probably drag its wretchedness about the world in a crippled condition. 




CAST UNDER THE MANGER. 



No person living possibly will, when inspecting the maimed and disabled 
horse, reflect upon the fate which dooms the animal to years of sorroAV, 
laboring through the lowest species of earthly trial; no one will heave 
a sigh that such a fate overtook a placid, gentle, and obedient creature, 
which was dangerously and cruelly confined during the time of serving 
a being who was bound to study the necessities and administer to the 
happiness of the life over which he Ivad assumed absolute authority. 

Other evils also spring from obliging the horse to sleep on a surface 
which is not level. The head of the animal being fastened to the man- 
ger, it has no choice but to couch where it stands, or to remain erect and 
endeavor to sleep in that position. There are quadrupeds which adopt and 
which maintain the last alternative : their bodies never repose on earth, 
until their injuries and their wrong are engulfed in the common doom. 

It is not every animal, however, which can hold to such a resolution, 
in spite of the aches and agonies by which it must be enforced. Certain 
creatures, feeling their bodies glide backward, rather facilitate than en- 
deavor to counteract the motion — hoping to soon rest upon the gangway, 
which experience has taught them terminates the stall. Others sleep so 
soundly as to be unconscious of the movement; while a third class, 
having attained philosophy through a life of misfortune, pay but little 
regard to the circumstances around them. In all instances the frame 



260 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



descends the slope, till the quarters pass the gutter and repose upon the 
gangway. 




A nORSE STANDING WHrLE IT SLEEPS. 



Yet, before the body can move such a distance from the manger, the 
neck and the collar-rope must both be strained. However, finding its 
body, at length, to be comfortal)ly located, the animal meditates com- 
posing itself to sleep, which is not to be done while the neck is out- 
stretched and the chain is raised far above its natural position. To 
accomplish this, the muzzle must be considerably lowered and the neck 
be retracted; but, before either can be done, the collar-rope must be 
loosened. It is obviously impossible to change the attitude while that 
fastening remains in a state of tension : the position in which the horse 
invariably sleeps cannot, therefore, be assumed. 

In this dilemma, the intelligent quadruped determines to rise and to 
return to the manger. But a natural law has ordained that before the 
horse gets up from the ground, the bead shall be thrown backward; 
thus lightening the weight upon the fore quarters, which parts are 
always first raised. The straightening of the front limbs is thereby 
facilitated. But this movement cannot now be put in practice because 
of the rope which retains the neck outstretched. Struggles are useless ; 



FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 



261 



the position is fixed, and the creature is powerless to alter it. The limbs 
are free, but these can only be used to kick and to aggravate the pain 
of the situation. The animal is a prisoner, and so it must remain, vainly 
contending with its doom, and exhausting its energies in fruitless efforts 
to escape. 

Assuredly, he should have possessed an enlarged capacity for evil 
who first conceived the notion of making a living creature, which was 
conspicuous for its strength, its activity, and its timidity, exist in a niche ; 
to have its head tied up by day and by night; and subsequently doomed 
it to rest upon a floor which sloped in a painful and an unnatural direc- 
tion. No surer means could have been invented of shortening the life, 
of deforming the body, or of injuring the limbs of the creature in whose 
prosperity man conceived he had "a property." Arms of all kinds, and 
of every description, the quadruped might have been safely trusted with ; 




LnSG ON THE GANGWAY. 



but to require of activity, that it should be fettered and forego all motion ; 
to demand of timidity, that it should be bound or imprisoned, and not 
display sensibility; to ask, that strength should endure and not attempt 
to struggle, was surely expecting too much from an inhabitant of a 
world in which fear, as the natural instructor of organized beings, is 
universally prevalent. 

The horse, thus located, was only presented with the ready means of 
doing injury to itself. It was provided with the only weapons which 



262 FAULTS INSEPARABLE FROM STABLES. 

nature had empowered it to employ. A more unwholesome, a more 
unnatural, or a more dangerous abode for any of the equine race than 
the stall of a modern stable, it would be impossible for the utmost 
stretch of the most excited malignity to imagine. Still, daily accidents, 
which must have ocisurred for centuries, seem to be incapable of instruct- 
ing mankind, where the welfare of another and of an inferior being is 
concerned ! 

Animals have been lamed ; have lost the power of vision ; have bred 
terrible disorders, and have been found stretched in death upon the straw 
bed, in consequence of the folly which has persisted in building modern 
stables. Such accidents must, as a necessity, continue so long as these 
edifices are erected. They are totally unsuited for the creature which 
they torture, cripple, and confine. Yet, because such abominations are 
sanctioned by custom and approved by ignorance, it is far more than 
probable that the author's exposure of their unfitness will be read with 
amusement, and admitted to be just; but the scourge which is recom- 
mended by its existence and patronized for its convenience will still be 
perpetuated. It may continue to disgrace this country for more than 
another century, although the judicious outlay of a few shillings would 
greatly amend even modern stables. Banish the stalls, and divide the 
interior into loose boxes. Lower the mangers and the hay racks to the 
floor. Soften the food before presenting it to the quadruped; and 
abolish the loft, now placed over where the animals repose. Allow the 
entire space, from the ground to the roof, for the huge lungs to breathe 
in. Improve the drainage. Warm the building by means of a slow 
combustion and by water pipes. To effect all this should not cost very 
much ; and, as his reward, man would gain the longer service of his 
slave, together with an inward approval, springing from a consciousness 
of having done his duty toward the meekness which Beneficence has 
intrusted to his keeping. 



CHAPTER YIII. 

THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES," WHICH ARE THE RESULTS OF 
INJURY OR OP DISEASE. 

The word "vice," when applied to the horse, represents any quality 
which may annoy the prejudices of the groom, or may prove displeasing 
to the expectations of the master. It is purely ridiculous to suppose 
the animal can possibly be "vicious." The simple nature of the quad- 
ruped is gifted with no power to distinguish good from evil. It lacks 
the imagination to conceive those acts which man esteems to be heroic 
or to be grand. "Were the creature able to embody ideas, the race would 
possess the ability to combine; anything approaching to the present 
patient docility would then be exchanged for open rebellion against the 
earthly tyrant. 

Human intelligence, however, seems to derive a strange pleasure from 
regarding the obedient and most forgiving horse as a "vicious," a savage, 
and a most relentless "brute." There seems to exist some happiness in 
the exhibition of those cruelties which such notions alone can justify. 
It is true that such unseemly contests do not invariably terminate in 
favor of him who always originates the strife. The master, who could 
by mildness have retained his power, by resorting to blows occasionally 
becomes worsted; but the horse, although it should prove victorious, 
always has to grieve over its triumph. The prowess of the quadruped 
draws down the heaviest punishment of other members of the race, an 
individual of which the animal has defeated. 

A great many "accidents" would be avoided, and, probably, the 
amount of happiness permitted to mortals would not be materially les- 
sened, could the populace be instructed to think a horse was endowed 
with senses, was gifted with feelings, and was able, in some degree, to 
appreciate motives. Such powers are enjoyed by all the higher grades 
of animal life. In asserting this, there is not the most distant desire to 
confound the living creature with the intellectual being. Reason believes 
in and can contemplate a futurity. The human eye takes easiest cogni- 
zance of forward objects. The vision of the horse does not behold 

(263) 



264 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

objects directly in front of its head, but glances backward, without 
necessarily turning the face. Man can imagine events ere they are 
embodied facts. An animal's ideas are strictly limited by its individual 
experiences. By these, its mind is moulded and its conduct is shaped. 
It has no power to forget. The past, with it, is the present. To suffer 
once, is to endure a constant dread of suffering again. To be pained, 
is always to fear a repetition of the agony. What has been, is, so long 
as memory shall last ; for the quadruped can conceive no future on which 
to fix its thoughts, or in the contemplation of which to escape from the 
misery that begirts its existence. 

"Would those persons who have no interest in any contrary opinion, 
adopt the above view of the subject, how very much of danger and of 
unpleasantness might the good people escape ! It is not unusual to 
behold an elderly gentleman, of the highest respectability, flog most 
unmercifully, in the public street, some inoffensive steed, until a red- 
dened face announces temper to be lost. Foot passengers look on the 
spectacle ; but no one, even in thought, condemns the needless severity. 
Hospital surgeons, however, can testify to something more permanent 
than temper being occasionally sacrificed through these unseemly con- 
tests. In such cases, man has provoked his fate. Reason, in vain, 
shows a broad and pleasant path, where dwells security. Passion blinds 
humanity, pride justifies passion, and the refuge is unheeded ! 

Will the reader kindly grant the author patience while the present 
subject is pursued a little further ? To prove the horse cannot, in any 
accepted meaning of the word, possibly be "vicious," it is only neces- 
sary to comprehend that vice of every form, whether it be lewdness, 
drunkenness, gluttony, or malice, always, in some gratification, seeks 
for a personal reward. It is no more than the concentration of selfish- 
ness. It always presupposes an intention. The difference between 
crime and insanity lies only in the idea of some recompense to be secured 
by the commission of a particular act and in sin without a motive. 
When the horse was created without ability to comprehend a future, the 
power to be "vicious" was, with the possibility of a contemplated 
motive, withheld. The creature, being unable to anticipate conse- 
quences, lacks incentive; therefore it can display no "vice," though it 
may exhibit insanity. The animal, however, may not always please its 
master; it is the "vice" of authority to call trivial offenses by harsher 
names than the actions in fairness should receive ; but no man has, 
hitherto, stigmatized the horse, which he deems "vicious," as insane. 

Having premised thus much, the author will attempt to explain some 
of the worst forms of equine "vice." 

"Eick of the back" and "chink of the back" are ternls which repre- 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 265 

sent some indefinite injury to the spine of a horse. The quadruped is 
essentially a beast of burden. The load is commonly supported on the 
back. It is so, entirely, when the creature is used for saddle purposes ; 
and, in the heavier species of draught, the balance always inclines 
toward the back of the "wheeler," while the spines of some coarse 
horses are sadly tried when they are obliged to trot back with a heavy, 
springless cart, after the- load has been delivered. 

It is the general custom of this country to place young cart-horses 
between the chains, or, in other Avords, to employ such animals only in 
the capacity of leaders. The practice is equally wise and humane. The 
draught is not easier as the propelling force is situated distant from the 
load, but the pull then is entirely upon the collar, and no weight is 
allowed to rest upon the immatured and yielding spine of a youthful 
body. These benefits, however, are all rendered nugatory by the con- 
duct of most carters. Such men are, generally, of Herculean propor- 
tions, and are conspicuous for no lightness of person. 

The cart, dray, or wagon leaves the office with the driver in his 
proper place, walking beside the horses. Here he continues until the 
load is delivered; but, on the return journey, he is apt to experience 
fatigue. He does not reflect how far his individual sensations are Hkely 
to be shared by the animals which have been drawing some heavy 
burden during the time he has been simply walking at their sides. No ! 
Seeking his own ease, he casts his body upon the back of the most for- 
ward, and, therefore, upon the youngest horse of the team. His seat is 
the loins, or directly upon the weakest portion of the vertebral chain. 
There he rides, squatting with his legs dangling upon one side. No 
doubt, the situation is pleasant ; but where all is conjecture, the reader 
must decide how far the repetition of such an act may account for rick 
of the back being common among the heavier kind of horses. 

It was otherwise with the old fly wagons of a former day. The 
driver of those vehicles used to have fastened behind his load a stout 
pony. When fatigued, the man would mount the supernumerary 
animal, and, riding beside his horses, Avould rest his own legs while he 
continued to guide his team ; an act which the London carter is, by his 
position, disqualified for performing. While the driver rests, the "luck 
which attends on ignorance " must take care of the vehicle. 

The spine of the horse, in a natural state, is characterized by a highly 
elastic property. As every form of mechanism is exposed to injury in 
proportion as it approaches to perfection, man should not feel surprised 
if the delicately-organized back of the animal is not exactly equal to all 
the usages unto which civilization has compelled it to submit. Indeed, 
when we feel how unscrupulous the human being can become, if urged 



2(iG THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

onward by the pursuit of gain or prompted by a sense of personal in- 
dulgence, it will hardly provoke wonder that the creature doomed to be 
the helpmate of the avaricious, should occasionally suffer in their 
service. 

Rick or chink of the back is among the most common and the least 
understood of equine affections. Its symptoms are confounded — one 
and the same name being employed to indicate every stage of the dis- 
order, thus confusing inquiry. Those effects which result from organic 
change are regarded as the promptings of that "viciousness of spirit" 
with which it has pleased mankind to credit the horse. The liberality 
of mortal imagination is extreme, especially where causes have to be 
assumed. Grant man the right to conjecture, and there is no mystery 
in nature for which he cannot account. Thus, the sharp pangs of agony 
which induced the contortions of a dumb creature were conjectured to 
be the gratification of an innately "vicious disposition." This pretended 
explanation has remained unquestioned for ages, abusing the intellect of 
mankind and hardening the hearts of those whom it was thought to 
enlighten. No doubt many very w^orthy people will feel much inclined 
to quarrel with the book which presumes to question the interpretation 
that generations have approved and time has sanctified. 

However, to expose the manner in which the personation of meekness 
has been abused by the arrogance of ignorance — certain animals are 
supposed to indulge a morbid habit, or "vicious" propensity, which is, 
by the lower orders, spoken of as "kidney dropping." Creatures thus 
viciously disposed are generally aged, and are devoted either to heavy 
draught or to harness purposes. They are sometimes met in those 
stables where horses are let out by the "hour, day, or job." One thus 
afflicted will be drawing a gig along some pleasant country road when 
"the vice" shall be suddenly displayed. The attacks may appear in 
rapid succession, when they render the life worthless ; or they may only 
come on at distant intervals, being separated by long periods of apparent 
soundness. No jockey, however knowing he may be in his vocation, or 
however boastful he may be about " my 'sperience 'mong 'orses," can, by 
any visible sign, announce the day or foretell the hour when a particular 
quadruped will be afflicted with an attack of " kidney dropping. " 

The horse shall be harnessed to some light vehicle, within which may 
be seated some tradesman, by whose side smiles the eldest daughter of 
a numerous family. The animal is not overloaded, and seems to be 
journeying pleasantly at its own pace. He who holds the reins is de- 
lighted ; while she who sits beside him ever and anon leans forward to 
pat the croup of "the dear pet." The sun is shining; the birds are 
singing ; the trees are bright with new foliage ; and the country smells 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES. 



267 



most pleasantly fresh; when, suddenly, the gig is brought sharply up, 
and "the wicked beast" is discovered squatting upon its haunches like a 
dog. 




A " KIDNEY DKOPPER." 



This is an unnatural position with the horse. It is perfectly true, 
animals are made to assume it in the circle of most amphitheaters ; but 
if the reader remembers, he also beheld men, in the same place, put 
their arms and legs in positions which were quite as unnatural to hu- 
manity in general as sitting on their haunches possibly could be to the 
community of the equine race. What, therefore, may have been ex- 
hibited at a circus -signifies nothing, when regarded in its fitness for 
universal application ; in all other spheres, sitting on the haunches, when 
exemplified by the horse, must be accepted as proof of bodily derange- 
ment. 

If the attitude of the animal be observed, the hind limbs will be seen to 
have fallen in such positions as suggest no notion of comfort or of design. 
They may cross one another, or they may be sprawled out on either side 
of the body ; they are never arranged with that grace and care which 
indicate the attitude to have been deliberately assumed. Moreover, 
should the skin be pricked with the point of a pin, no sign of sensibility 
is usually elicited from the hind quarters. Strike the prostrated mem- 
bers, and no evidence of pain follows the blow. The posterior portions 
of the body, obviously, are dead to this world and to its malice. 

However, do not fuss about the horse ; allow the sufferer to remain 
undisturbed where it has fallen. Have patience with the distress which 



268 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

no cruelty can quicken. Loosen the harness; remove the shafts; pro- 
cure some water, and permit sensibility to allay its parching thirst. 
After a short space, the quadruped may get up of its own accord. No 
time has been lost ; but disease has not been aggravated by needless 
torture. When the creature rises, the fit has passed; but the author 
doubts if the recovery can then be pronounced complete. He would, 
certainly, brave "an accident" who should essay to drive a horse but 
recently recovered from an attack of "kidney dropping," though this 
hazard may be frequently incurred with apparent impunity. 

Allow the injured quadruped to remain in the stable, undisturbed for 
the night. The following morning will be time enough for its examina- 
tion ; for the disease under which the horse languishes is of a nature that 
cannot be affected by the lapse of a few hours. 

The next day, having selected a piece of clear ground, cover the spot 
thickly with straw, and have the horse led on to it. The services of a 
veterinary surgeon are not imperative. The proprietor may himself 
conduct the investigation : or, should he feel distrustful of his own 
ability, any person possessed of the necessary amount of confidence may 
undertake the active duty. All idle spectators should be first requested 
to retire. Then the investigator takes his position as close to the quad- 
ruped as possible. He runs the forefinger and thumb gently over the 
superior spinous processes of the vertebral chain, or down the center of 




TEST FOR RICK OF THE BACK. 



the back. This action is repeated several times, additional force being 
brought to bear with each succeeding trial, until the whole strength of 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 269 

the operator is exerted. While he is doing this, the person who under- 
takes the investigation fixes his attention on the head of the horse. If, 
upon pressure being made on any particular spot, the ears are laid upon 
the neck, or the crest is suddenly elevated, the fact must be mentally 
noted. The trial should be renewed, and if the like symptoms be elicited, 
the conclusion naturally is, that the seat of injury lies immediately under 
or very near to the place indicated. 

This point being ascertained, the operator puts a hand on either side 
of the tender part, and casts his full weight suddenly upon the spine. 
Such a proceeding, to be demonstrative, must be rapid and energetic. 
Horses, under the sudden pang thus produced, have shrieked in agony. 
Generally, animals crouch under the torture, and burst forth into copious 
perspirations. The author knows of no instance where a desire to em- 
ploy the teeth has been exhibited, although there is no predicating in 
what manner a creature may behave under the powerful wrench of 
actual torment. He, however, who undertakes such an inquiry, must 
be prepared for every eccentricity; and, while regretting the necessity 
which obliges agony to be inflicted on a gentle and a timid creature, he 
should also be far above those coarse and brutal punishments which are 
too frequently indulged to check the writhings of the potent suffering. 

The affair is thus decided. The spine has been injured, and the spinal 
cord which it sheathes is also involved in the lesion. Horses in such a 
condition are commonly, with that utter want of morality which in every 
species of horse transactions appears equally to sway all degrees of the 
human mind, — such animals are commonly cast upon the market, or 
publicly disposed of by auction. The cause of sale is willfully con- 
cealed : the purchaser is designedly imposed on, and his life is know- 
ingly endangered. Persons of every class, from most noblemen to the 
ordinary tradesman, engage in this form of arrant cheatery. They 
swindle their sense of rectitude by giving no warranty at the time of 
sale ; but the law presumes that everything sold contemplates a fitness 
for certain purposes ; whereas a horse liable to an instantaneous loss of 
power in its limbs is dangerous in any employment. Yet so flimsy an 
excuse seems to justify the reputedly honorable man extracting, possi- 
bly, the last penny from the pocket of or imposing upon some struggling 
and needy individual. 

The animal, being sold, is soon found to be worthless ; it speedily 
becomes the property of the lower class of horse-copers, to whom that 
which they call a "kidney dropper" is a real prize. The quadruped is 
sold "cheap" to people of worldly respectability; but it is seldom re- 
tained long by its new owners. It is rebought, for little more than its 
real value, by its former proprietors, to be once more palmed off on 



( 

270 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

some aspiring equestrian. After such a manner — selling in tlie dearest 
market and buying in the cheapest, a maxim of very questionable moral- 
ity — a large profit has been realized by a carcass which was actually 
worthless. 

The author, never having dissected the spine of a "kidney dropper," 
cannot positively say in what condition of parts the disease resides. A 
knowledge of anatomy, however, aided by a comprehension of the symp- 
toms, demonstrates the vertebral chain is the seat of injury ; while the 
want of motion which affects the hinder limbs indicates the spinal mar- 
row to be suddenly pressed upon. Subsequent recovery likewise proves 
the injury to the nervous center is of no more serious a character ; while 
the perfect restoration of the animal's power shows that the pressure is 
either caused by displacement, or by such a partial fracture as rest will 
enable nature to surmount. This explanation, deduced from observation, 
and based upon inferences drawn from the study of effects, will to most 
persons appear so probable as to be perfectly satisfactory. Still, there 
do exist minds whose faith in an antiquated name it is hardly possible 
for any argument to destroy ; the generality of readers, therefore, must 
grant the author patience, w^iile he, most probably in vain, attempts to 
disabuse such persons of their strange belief. 

The term "kidney dropping" is an ignorant combination of words to 
which no absolute meaning can be attached. The kidneys are no more 
than the renal glands. The horse which falls exhibits no sign of urinary 
disease. These organs are usually healthy ; of that fact the writer has 
positive information. The kidneys, moreover, are not specially endowed 
with motor nerves ; no physiologist has hitherto asserted that these 
glands are in any way concerned in the movements of the body. The 
renal organs have, by the French, been unwarrantably removed, without 
the general sensation or the body's motion being affected. When the 
horse drops, not only is motion gone from the hind limbs, but sensibility 
is lost. The quarters have dropped, not in accordance with the will of 
the creature, but because the posterior division of the body was released 
from the control of the sensorium, or was suddenly cut off from the 
influence of volition. 

The spinal marrow regulates the motions of the limbs, being subject 
only to the dictation of the brain. Volition and motion are in these 
organs associated, but not absolutely united. They both are capable of 
separate existence, though the mechanical derangement which destroys 
the one usually puts an end to the other. Nevertheless, they can exist 
apart. Convulsion exhibits motion, as independent of the will; while 
painful paralysis displays sensibility increased, although power of move- 
ment has been lost. In " kidney dropping," consciousness is retained ; 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 2T1 

but motion and sensibility have departed from one-half of the trunk. 
This result indicates the nervous current to be partially checked, and 
points to the great medium of transmission as the seat of injury. 

There is, however, another form of chink in the back, where the spinal 
marrow is in no vast degree involved, and in which the animal exhibit- 
ing the affection is not generally devoted to harness purposes. The 
horse is commonly showy in appearance, and is usually disposed of ex- 
clusively for saddle uses. But the existence of a disease is not denoted 
by any outward sign ; therefore its presence is sneered at as a positive 
impossibility. Quadrupeds, thus disordered, are, by the generality of 
horsemen, condemned as " irreclairaably vicious." 

One of the bones of the spine has been rendered loose in consequence 
of the ligaments being overstrained; the animal has been abused in 
some manner. The ligaments, when in this condition, are acutely pain- 
ful ; though no visual disorder may be observable to the post-mortem 
examiner, nevertheless the slightest weakness in such a structure may, 
during life, occasion the severest agony. The bone is not fractured; 
but one of the vertebrae, through the leverage of its superior spinous 
process, may have been wrenched slightly to one side. This may not 
affect the appearance of the quadruped ; neither may it elicit signs of 
pain when the weight is evenly seated upon the back ; therefore, only 
during the act of mounting, the drag then being entirely to one side, it 
occasions the most poignant anguish. 

The horse, being dumb, of course cannot explain its sensations; nor 
can it appeal to the forbearance of its master. Its ailments are entirely 
subjected to the merciful consideration of man. The animal's actions, 
therefore, are always liable to be misconstrued ; the promptings of tort- 
ure are frequently confounded with the exhibitions of the worst forms 
of "vice." Thus, a creature with the ligaments of the back strained is 
always condemned as an inveterate kicker; because the drag, produced 
by the weight of the rider resting on one stirrup, occasions so sharp an 
agony as alarms the quadruped, and naturally excites a determination to 
repel some imaginary enemy. The creature, consequently, commences 
to "lash out" with its utmost energy. This violence is repeated so 
often as the owner has occasion to remount. The action is always 
sudden, and not to be inferred from the previous aspect or behavior of 
the nag. It is, therefore, attended with the greater danger, not only to 
the proprietor, but also to those who may be collected about the horse. 

A good illustration of the above facts occurred a few years back, in 
front of certain spacious "rooms," then much frequented by "the fash- 
ionable world." A cavalry officer, recently returned from India, went to 
hear a morning concert at the place just alluded to. There he met some 



272 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

old friends, who had changed their residence since he had left the coun- 
try, being then located at Richmond. The party had ridden to London ; 
the military gentleman was pressed to return, and to spend a pleasant 
day at the suburban villa. A servant was dispatched to hire a horse ; 
the man soon returned with a rather small, but very showy, black nag. 




NEVER MOUNT A STRANGE HORSE IN A CROWDED LOCALITT. 



The officer thought, before the concert was ended, he would retire and 
form the acquaintance of an animal he was shortly to ride for several 
miles. It was well he did so ; for no sooner was his foot placed in the 
stirrup, than what previously appeared to be a remarkably steady quad- 
ruped began to "lash out." The action was continued, creating terrible 
confusion among the crowd which thronged the street, and ultimately 
throwing the would-be rider. The military gentleman was probably 
more hurt in feelings than in person by the incident ; although the latter 
circumstance formed an excuse for not journeying to Richmond, and the 
occurrence, on the following morning, was circulated throughout London 
as a newspaper paragraph, bearing a heading of " Serious Accident to 
A Cavalry Officer." 

Yiolent, however, as may be the resistance provoked while the foot is 
in the stirrup, the seat of the saddle is no sooner attained than compo- 
sure is restored. When the rider is once fairly on the back, the steed 
assumes its natural timidity, its docility, and its obedience. It is then 
transformed into all the most fastidious proprietor could desire. That 
circumstance has induced some horsemen who were more thoughtful 
than the generality of the race, to change the habit usual in this coun- 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 273 

try. Such persons have tried the effect of mounting upon the wrong 
side; this has usually, for a certain time, been attended with perfect 
success ; but the custom, after a space, has seemed to involve the sound 
ligaments, when the kicking has been renewed with more than double 
vehemence. A horse which kicks in the way described, should always 
be transferred to harness work, when no vast weight being upon the 
back, the quadruped generally behaves admirably. 

Rick or chink in the back is, however, the common property of creat- 
ures of heavy draught, and, with such a description of horse, the con- 
sequences are usually more marked and much more severe. The reader 
will readily imagine that a "kidney dropper," falling suddenly while 
pulling a weighty load, can hardly escape "accident." Therefore, quad- 
rupeds of the coarser breed, and thus afflicted, rapidly come into the 
possession of those who do not scruple to trade with misery ; and, as 
this form of disease enables the sufferer to appear with a blooming coat, 
as well as with a carcass carrying a quantity of fat, the copers often reap 
a rich harvest by their unscrupulous dishonesty. 

A common cause of these accidents is the thoughtlessness or the 
greediness of horse proprietors. It has become almost a custom, with 
needy masters, to send out one-horse carts upon two wheels with long 
reins attached to the harness. The motive which induces such silly 
behavior is obvious enough. The tradesman imagines that by the ani- 
mal being hurried back after the load is delivered, time can be saved. 
He does not consider that the limbs, which have been strained dragging 
some fearful weight to a particular spot, may, before another task of 
magnitude is imposed, possibly require the comparatively easy walk back 
to recover the full use of their functions. He probably, and it is hoped 
actually, has never reflected that perpetual fatigue soon exhausts, and 
ultimately disables, animal energy. 

The cart horse, moreover, being forced to quicken its pace, is urged 
beyond the habits and the uses for which man has bred the creature. It 
is compelled to execute a duty for the performance of which its bodily 
formation renders it totally unsuited. The poor animal that is called 
upon to fulfill opposite uses, generally endures the shorter period : be- 
cause of the excessive labor it is obliged to undergo. The custom, there- 
fore, accords with the saying, which illustrates waste and extravagance, 
by supposing a candle to be lighted at both ends. The wretched horse 
is now a cart horse, loaded to the extent of its ability ; next, it is expected 
to display the activity of a gig horse, although it is harnessed to what 
badly represents the lighter vehicle ; while, the long day of continued 
toil being ended, the slave is required to trot briskly homeward with a 
crowded load of human laborers. 

18 



274 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

The dismissed cart is generally well burdened, after the hour for strik- 
ing work has arrived. The men usually leave off their toil as the first 
stroke of the clock is heard ; but no such relaxation is permitted to the 
creature which, of the many over-worked bodies, has toiled the hardest 
and needs rest the most. The quietude of London suburbs is regularly 
broken with the thud ! thud ! thud 1 produced by the heavy shafts pulling 
down the chain, which has been jolted upward by the ungainly trot of the 
tired slave. The sound declares the force which falls every few moments 
upon the same part of a living spine. The falling of a single drop of 
water, long continued, on the same place, can occasion direst agony. 
The Inquisition illustrated that fact. But the cart is heavier than many 
drops of water. Any one who has beheld a spectacle of this description, 
can have hardly failed to observe the faintness, mingled with suffering, 
which propels the load. The driver commonly stands up near to the 
front; he jags the reins and loudly cracks the long whip, that fright may 
quicken the movement of those limbs which tire seems to glue to the 
stones over which they pass. 




THE COMMON CAUSES OF RICK OF THE BACK IN HEAVT HORSES. 



Rick or chink in the back is, generally, generated by that want of 
sympathy shown by the community of proprietors in regard to their 
property in horse flesh. It would be a legitimate cause for wonder, 
were horses not a hazardous investment, when breathing and living 
frames are subjected to the united effects of ignorance and of prejudice. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 275 

Upon the earliest indication being perceived of the spine having been 
badly injured, the horse should be instantly thrown up for at least six 
months. The animal ought not to have a layer of pitch, rosin, etc. 
smeared thickly over the back, and be turned out to take its chance upon 
a green diet. But it should be placed in a roomy, loose box : it should 
have the hair cut off close over the seat of injury, and the place should 
be constantly moistened by means of cloths dipped in a lotion, composed 
of tincture of arnica, two ounces, and water, one pint. This remedy, 
with softened food of the most supporting kind, should constitute the 
treatment for the first month of recovery. 

At the end of that period, we may assume that inflammation has been 
subdued; thereupon the measures adopted may be changed. Some 
compound soap liniment should be rubbed on the surface every morning. 
Should the application blister the skin, the liniment must be withheld 
for a time ; but so soon as friction can be quietly endured, the stimulant 
must be renewed. All this while, the quadruped should be well fed ; but 
medicine should be strictly withheld, grass and bran mashes being solely 
employed to regulate the bowels if their action be sluggish. 

When morbid sensibility no longer exists in the spine, and moderate 
pressure with the fingers can be borne upon the back, the liniment may 
be discontinued ; but the restoration is to finish with the repeated use 
of liquid blisters. One side of the spine, near to the seat of injury, is 
first to be acted upon ; when the action of the vesicatory appears to be 
subsiding, the other half of the back should be attacked. This plan 
must be pursued* till the fifth month has expired, the horse being sus- 
tained upon the best and most nutritive food. After this period has 
elapsed, a handful of ground oak bark should be mingled with each 
allowance of provender. The animal, during all this time, never being 
flurried, or allowed to leave its ample stable. 

Upon recovery, the quadruped ought never to be employed for that 
same kind of service in which the injury was received. No weight 
should, subsequently, be placed upon the back ; for the spine which has 
been once injured, can never, by human art, be restored to its pris- 
tine soundness. However greatly the animal may have been prized, 
even as a hunter, it is safer and much more profitable to doom the steed 
to the collar, in which last employment old hunters particularly delight 
in exhibiting their higlily-prized excellences of action. Many a horse 
that appears in the London streets running before some brougham, and 
which, by the gayety of its spirit, excites the admiration of the foot 
passengers, will, after death, be found to have one or more bones of the 
spine joined by osseous deposit, proving that the back, during life, must 
have suffered serious injury. 



216 1HE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

Horse owners, however, should be very careful, not knowingly to risk 
chink or rick of the back; for such an "accident," according to its in- 
tensity, may reduce the animal of fabulous price to an article which 
shall literally be almost valueless. It brings down the steed which 
excited universal envy, to the cripple which no honest man would sell, 
and which no prudent man would keep. The mischief once established, 
too often sets science at defiance, for the rick, when bad, is terribly apt 
to terminate in fearful fracture of the spine. 




THE PATENT TBACE-SHAFT. 



The above illustration is copied from the heading to a bill which 
announces a patented invention, which is manufactured by Messrs. Gib- 
son & Co., of Coventry Street. The novelty consists in the shafts being 
so made as to render the employment of traces unnecessary when the 
animal is driven in single harness. The weight of the vehicle, or so 
much of it as usually rests upon the back, is dependent entirely from 
the collar. For horses troubled with any of those "vices" which indi- 
cate the spine to be affected, this kind of harness affords, at all events, 
the most rational hope of working such creatures without provoking the 
annoying and the dangerous symptom. 

When it is remembered that all animals which have been worn out 
under the saddle, old hacks and hunters, are doomed to end their lives 
in the more ignoble duties of propulsion, it is not surprising to find 
many of the quadrupeds, sold for double or single harness, are affected 
with those complaints which indicate the back to be disordered. The 
worst exhibitions are confined to gig horses. Few carriage or brougham 
horses are thus disabled ; that fact almost proves the author's inference, 
as well as demonstrates the utility of that novelty which was in the last 
illustration introduced to the notice of the reader. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 27T 

As heavy quadrupeds are likely to be similarly diseased, the carter 
should be informed of the fact, and cautioned against ever riding on the 
backs of his teamsters. So also with lighter animals, the groom should 
be forbidden to mount the horses which are very liable to this misfor- 
tune. The shafts of a cart are of course calculated to aggravate this 
malady ; but such a horse may perform easy or reasonable labor between 
the chains for a long succession of years ; only, when the pull is severe, 
the driver should go to the head of the disordered teamster, to prevent 
any undue strain upon the back, or it would be certainly better if, during 
the period of exertion, the chains were unhooked. 

It is strange, when the importance of the spine to the utility of the 
animal is considered, and when the well-known fact is regarded that the 
lowest class of copers make a species of property out of horses suffering 
from rick of the back, that this particular region receives no special 
attention during a quadruped's soundness being subjected to the test of 
an ordinary veterinary examination ! The creature's head, tail, eyes, 
teeth, shoulders, haunches, limbs, feet, etc. would all be scrupulously 
investigated ; but the back, on the soundness of which the utility of the 
body must depend, would probably be only honored with a passing notice. 

Animals, however, which are ricked in the back, are generally sold 
through one of those Horse Auction Marts that abound in the metropohs. 
Such places offer great facilities to dishonest practices, and afford much 
encouragement to the class of copers. These persons never care to pos- 
sess a sound horse. They have always some bargain ready to be 
imposed upon a novice; and the ignorant in horse flesh are ever eager 
to snap at any supposed "awful sacrifice." The uninitiated is a fre- 
quenter of auctions. Being there, he walks down the gangways, star- 
ing at the equine chattels; going dangerously near to their heels, but 
not venturing up to the head of any quadruped. It is not long that 
this person is permitted to stroll unattended in such a sphere. His 
notice is soon directed to "one of the right sort." The groom is ordered 
to bring the animal into the yard, and show "its action" to the gen- 
tleman. 

While the groom is putting on the bridle and removing the cloth, 
the uninitiated accompanies his new companion into the yard. The 
coming of the animal is soon announced by the cracking of numer- 
ous whips. The poor creature is hurried and flurried about the little 
space outside the stables, or it is made to prance and caper along the 
public street. The intention is not to exhibit the natural pace, for no 
person possibly could judge of a horse when the animal is thus circum- 
stanced. Fear will conceal the presence of disease, and the symptoms 
of alarm are, in the quadruped, readily mistaken for the evidences of spirit. 



278 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

The. novice should shun such society; and the gentleman deserves 
small pity who ventures into such a locality. Let the person who 
desires to possess a horse, and who can afford to pay for the luxury he 
covets, enter the premises of some respectable dealer. Let him be pre- 
pared to exchange a fair sum for a sound and serviceable animal. Let 
him never walk into the yard, and wait the appearance of the quad- 
ruped ; but rather let the would-be purchaser remain near the stall, and 
observe attentively the groom while the man is putting on the bridle. 
Some creatures are alarmed when a hand approaches the head — an in- 
dication, either that the sight is imperfect, that severe punishment has 
been inflicted, or that the brain may be diseased. This symptom also 
warrants other suspicions; and it is never suggestive of health or of 
good treatment. The precautions taken by the man, when going toward 
the head, will also be characteristic, and may inform the spectator of 
very much concerning the educated temper and disposition of the nag 
he contemplates acquiring. 




BACKING ON TO THE GANGWAY. 



Such things, however, being noted, the stranger must still retain his 
situation. Some horses, though not absolutely "ricked," are neverthe- 
less stiff in the back. Such quadrupeds are unpleasant to the rider, and 
are unable to turn in the stall; but whenever their removal becomes 
imperative, they are backed out on to the gangway, and then turned 
toward the door. A stiffened spine can be no recommendation, but it 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 2T9 

may fairly be accepted as evidence that the animal has either been over- 
weighted or has, in its time, done some hard work. It is invariably 
detrimental to tlie value ; for, the vertebrce being the base of the anatom- 
ical body, their healthy condition is of the greatest possible importance 
toward even an approach to soundness. 

It is highly improbable that an animal with a decided rick of the back 
should find admission into the stables of any respectable dealer; but 
there are numerous places, termed Commission Stables, which a novice 
unacquainted with names and localities may, from outward appearances, 
easily mistake for premises of the purest character. Should the imaginary 
personage, whose conduct the author has supposed to be the subject of 
remark, have entered such a stable, much art will be employed to per- 
suade him to leave the building. If the gentleman should be firm, and 
refuse to retire, possibly the proprietor may be seized with a sudden fancy 
to show another horse ; but any trick of this nature will be readily de- 
tected, and the fresh animal, though subsequently led into the yard, should 
never be looked at. 




TLK.VINU I.\ 1U£ STALL. 



A horse cannot turn in the stall without twisting the back. Some 
animals, however, can turn quickly in one direction, whereas an attempt 
to flex the body the contrary way will produce the acutest anguish. 
Therefore, when the groom bids the horse come round, the gentleman 
should observe the mode in which the act is accomplished. Should the 
quadruped's head be turned from the door, such a fact may be regarded 
as suspicious; for grooms always prefer the shortest roads, and trivial 
matters, where horses are concerned, often lead to important discoveries. 

The diseases of the horse are not yet thoroughly understood. Man- 
kind have acquired a habit of accepting words, without insisting that the 



280 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

ideas such terms represent shall be strictly defined. No word is more 
common in the mouths of horsemen than "jibbing." It, however, 
does not specially imply one act; for there are many kinds of behavior 
which are designated as "jibbing." Thus, a horse which is unable to 
start, is called "a jibber." A quadruped which, in the middle of a 
journey, shall be suddenly impelled to move in a backward direction, 
is said to "jib." The animal which, upon hearing the command to 
proceed, will commence throwing up its head, and, spite of chastisement, 
shall bear in the opposite direction, is also supposed to have learned 
the "vice" of "jibbing." 

"Jibbing" of every kind appears to be no "vice," but a nervous dis- 
order, — a sort of equine epilepsy. A word, spoken sharply, can summon 
the attack, which generally deprives the animal of all power of motion, 
or forces it to move in a direction the opposite of the road on which it 
wishes to proceed. The movements are independent of the will ; and if 
any person will attentively inspect the countenance of the horse, when 
in the act of "jibbing," the author imagines the real character of the 
supposed "vice" must be recognized. When "jibbing" is exhibited, a 
spasmodic fit has possession of the frame. It is useless to flog or to 
inflict other tortures. The attack will last a certain time, and then, 
perhaps, suddenly vanish. No brutality can shorten its duration, though 
cruelty, possibly, may lengthen the convulsion. 

On such occasions, however, various cruelties are commonly perpe- 
trated ; but severity has then lost its power to quicken timidity. The 
lash has ceased to influence ; while the human voice, though sent forth 
in volume and exerted in the bitterest execration, no longer is invested 
with the attributes of authority. The body is acted upon by a power 
higher than mortal sway. The creature is then carried by disease above 
this world's malice. The whip or the signal to proceed may elicit only 
a staggering motion, or a backward movement. At last the spell is 
broken. The ability to guide the limbs suddenly is regained : but the 
brain is congested and the senses confused. The creature, upon the 
first partial recovery, may exhibit a desire to bolt — may, for an uncertain 
period, be all but unconscious. Sometimes it will recover its powers 
suddenly, almost as though its previous condition had been assumed. 
On other occasions it may, under some impulse, tear onward, regardless 
of the road, as though it sought to fly the scene of its late suSering, or 
endeavor to lose the agony of convulsion in the rapidity of motion. 

The probability that such an act may conclude the fit of jibbing, 
instructs us in the folly of adding the irritation of man's cruelty to the 
pain necessarily accompanying acute disease. Severity can only lend 
violence to the impulse which is almost certain to succeed the at kck. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES. 



281 



It may endanger the life of the driver, but it cannot shorten the duration 
of the fit. Every kind of brutality has been speculated in without effect. 
Such treatment, most probably, has prolonged insensibility; for noise, 
confusion, or agony is not likelj' to be sedative to the nervous system 
which a word has morbidly excited. Yet such practices are generally 
adopted. Nay, the author has heard of a professional man who, re- 
siding near London, possessed a fine animal which was thus afflicted. 




A POPULAR CURB FOR THi; IMAGINARY VICE OF "JIBBING." 



This person actually had some straw kindled under his quadruped's 
body, and, to quicken what he called "an obstinate vice," partially 
roasted the breathing flesh of his living property ! So monstrous an 
artifice was successful on the first occasion; but, upon repetition, it 
ceased to operate. Such a custom is not unusual among the uneducated 
boors of distant villages; but the writer had hoped that no vexation 
could have induced an individual, possessing the most distant claim upon 
the name of gentleman, to adopt so inhuman and useless a resort. 

The horse is a gentle creature ; it has no courage ; it can display no 
resolution. Its impulses always incline it to flee from danger. It is 
made up of alarms, and a child's puny hand may guide its huge strength. 
But the history of the animal supplies too many instances where the 
perversity of mankind has mistaken the prompting of disease for the 
display of malice. It is disgraceful to the boasted civilization of the 



282 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 



present age that, while knowledge has much benefited every sphere of 
human legislation, the errors, the practices, and the brutalities of the 
last century should be in full operation, — where the scant necessities of 
the most gentle, the most submissive, and the most valuable of man's 
earthly helpmates are concerned. 

Jibbing is most common among harness horses, the faces of which are 
disguised and partially concealed by the blinkers. Were the countenance 
exposed, its expression could hardly be misinterpreted by any person 
who cared to observe its indications. But nothing can obscure the com- 
prehension of mankind like prejudice. This weapon has been frequently 
employed against the life of human beings ; but animals, to this hour, 
are tortured by its operation. Could the countenance of a horse, when 
in the act of jibbing, be calmly contemplated, all belief in "voluntary 
vice" would be at once dispelled. The eye is strained inward ; the teeth 

are firmly set ; the nostrils are di- 
lated; the breathing is spasmodic; 
and the muscles are rigid. 

There is, however, one symptom 
which, although expressive of terror, 
agony, or faintness, all horsemen are 
agreed in regarding as the declara- 
tion of a "vicious intention." Such 
an indication is the backward posi- 
tion of the ears, or the laying of those 
organs upon the animal's neck. The 
forward carriage, or the "pricking" 
of those members is recognized as 
expressive of delight, of gayety, or 
of attention. What, then, should 
the backward position truthfully sig- 
nify? What ought sense to imply, 
from the falling of a part the upright 
bearing of which is interpreted to be 
the sign of liveliness ? Yet, how many tender-hearted gentlemen, abused 
by the prejudices they inherited, will, when they observe the ears laid 
back, unhesitatingly cause the lash to sting the body which, probably, 
was far from contemplating mischief I 

When an animal is thus afflicted, never pursue the course which is 
usually adopted. All noise should be prevented ; no flurry near to or 
about the creature should be permitted. Do not use the whip or jag 
the reins : relinquish both. Order those within the vehicle immediately 
to dismount. Undo the bearing rein: loosen the harness. If possible. 




THE COUNTENANCE OF A HORSE DUKINa A FIT OF 
JIBBING. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 283 

remove the quadruped from the shafts. Go to the head ; speak sooth- 
ingly; pat and caress the agitated frame. Procure some cold water; 
soak a thick cloth in the liquid, and lay it over the brain and upon the 
eyes. Sponge out the mouth and nostril; then empty the vessel, by 
dashing the remaining fluid into the animal's face. When the incapaci- 
tating stage is subsiding, have ready two powerful men, who, placed at 
the head, shall prevent the disposition to bolt from being indulged. This 
done, return the horse to the stable. Never hazard riding behind a 
creature which has recently been afflicted with "equine epilepsy." 

Such an animal is best put out of its misery at once, as the attempted 
remedy occupies too much time, is too expensive, and is far too uncer- 
tain in its result, to be prudently adopted. However, should the horse 
be young, it may be kept on prepared food for eighteen months — not 
turned out to grass; but stabled, properly exercised, and fed on the best, 
in the hope that nature will, with maturity, banish the disease. Such 
persons, however, as will drive a jibber, which merely exhibits a tardi- 
ness at starting, should be particular never to have the coat singed or 
clipped ; for cold, acting upon the large surface of exposed integument, 
is very likely to provoke an attack. The horse, when brought to the 
door, should be briskly walked, and the journey, when commenced, should 
never start off at a tearing pace; but should begin most gently, and 
very gradually become more speedy. Such treatment, with carefully 
prepared food, plenty of old beans, bran mashes for laxatives, and an 
occasional tonic, is the best means the author knows of to render the 
quadruped ultimately useful. 

The power of kindness is, perhaps, shown most strongly in the case 
of the horse thus affected. The love of the creature for the individual 
who is fond of it, is not well or truly characterized when spoken of as 
affection : it is something more than such a general term can represent : 
it amounts to positive devotion. Even when the fit is strongest, and all 
ordinary sounds are lost to the animal's sense, the voice of the person 
who has been constantly kind will evidently be responded to. His 
caresses will soothe at a moment when the most potent pangs would be 
powerless : his presence will restrain the wildness which naturally en- 
sues upon the first dawn of reviving consciousness. Whereas he who is 
habitually a careless or a harsh master, in whose hand whip and reins 
are equally instruments of torture, may, only by his appearance, induce 
the attack ; and his foot upon the vehicle is likely to generate the agita- 
tion which shall assuredly bring on the disease. 

But the man who would win the love of his steed, and is fond of the 
animal, should be a frequent visitor to its abode. That simple or nega- 
tive quality which consists in the absence of actual cruelty, will answer 



284 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

no end. The human being, thus distinguished, only elicits the passive 
indifference by which his treatment is characterized. It is feeling, which 
even in animals, responds to feeling. The horse and the dog love those 
who like to take pains with them, or submit to trouble for their sakes. 
The two animals are alike in this respect. How fond the dog, which 
may for years have slept before the fire and grown enormously fat upon 
the plentiful meals supplied by an indulgent but an indifferent master, — 
how attached the animal speedily becomes to any person who, though a 
stranger, will devote some time to the teaching of little canine tricks ! 
So also with the horse ; the best way, indeed the only way, to win the 
entire love of this creature, is to expend some labor in brightening its 
intelligence. 

To return to the matter at present especially under consideration. 
The jibbing which is confined to a delay at starting may be annoying, 
but it is seldom dangerous. The animal which merely moves backward, 
when commanded to proceed, may vex the driver, but the malady, being 
known, its consequences can, in a great measui'e, be guarded against. 
There is, however, one form of this disease which renders any animal 
very far from a safe possession. It is, where the horse will suddenly 
stand still in the middle of a journey, and commence backing. The 
more inopportune the place for such an exhibition, the more likely is the 
visitation to be brought on. A crowded thoroughfare or a dangerous 
road, — any incident calculated to excite or to alarm the steed, will as- 
suredly produce a display of the worst symptoms. 

A medical gentleman, of whose acquaintance the author is justifiably 
proud, — and whose practice laid upon the western coast, — one evening, 
after a hard day's work, which had tired all his horses and fairly knocked 
up their master, was, before his boots were pulled off, apprised that a 
wealthy lady, and resident eighteen miles distant from his pharmacy, 
required his immediate attendance. There was no choice but to obey 
such a summons. The gentleman's own horses he could not think of 
compelling over such a distance. Therefore the place was scoured, and 
at last an individual was discovered who was willing to lend, for a con- 
sideration, "the very best horse in the whole country." The doctor was 
soon mounted, and progressing to his destination, at the rate of twelve 
miles an hour. The distance had nearly been accomplished, when the 
road ran close to the sea. It was in fact no more than a broad ledge 
cut in the side of a precipitous cliff. This spot being reached, and the 
heart of the rider made glad at the prospect of soon accomplishing his 
journey, the steed suddenly came to a stand. It first trembled all over. 
The gentleman endeavored to soothe the creature, which he perceived 
was suffering, but which he concluded was alarmed. He was thus en- 



THE SO-OALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 285 

gaged, when the nag commenced to back toward the sea. Whip and 
spur were tried to no purpose. The iilipulse could not be checked or 
altered ; and the writer's friend, perceiving his danger, had barely time 
to throw himself out of the saddle, when the horse toppled over the cliff, 
and was discovered a mangled mass on the following morning. 




The various aspects which disease can assume, of course are multiform, 
and unfortunately, these, when exhibited by the horse, are all exposed to 
the arbitrary conclusions of prejudice. Men of education appear, in all 
that concerns the stable, to passively resign their intellects into the 
hands of the groom, and to be swayed by the hardihood of assertion, or 
to be ruled by the conjectures of selfishness. Thus the declarations of 
morbid sensibility are accepted and spoken of as the antics of the 
"rankest vice," "Jibbing" has been punished as the instigation of 
malice ; the chastisement has been inflicted without mercy, and has con- 
tinued for many ages ; but cruelty has not been able to check the exhibi- 



286 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

tion of disease. The symptom is to this hour as general as it was in 
previous centuries. It still delays the vehicle, after the driver is ready 
to start : it often propels the wheels in a contrary direction to that the 
coachmen desire they should travel : it commonly stays the wayfarer, 
when eager to conclude his journey. At the door of the mansion, in 
the public street and on the high road, the signs of the malady are fre- 
quently to be witnessed. 

So it is with the indications of various disorders. The horses of the 
existing race of proprietors are, for a life, doomed to subsist on the same 
substances : four or five times a day, dried grass, oats, and a few beans 
are placed before them : some have chopped straw, and, in exceptional 
cases, prepared food ; but that being only allowed for the last meal on 
Saturday night, does not interfere with the monotony of diet. Now, a 
sameness in the articles consumed, as medical men now recognize, dis- 
orders the digestion; but when aided by a want of exercise, a total 
absence of amusement, and an impure residence, perhaps no better 
means could be invented to derange the tenderest radicles of being. 
The sympathy which exists between the stomach and the skin is now 
so universally understood that it will generate no surprise if the creat- 
ure, thus housed, imprisoned, and sustained, should be occasionally 
troubled with an obstinate cutaneous affection. 

Stabled horses often are the victims of an acutely sensitive condition 
of the integument. Yet the possible existence of such a state is never 
admitted by the groom, because the affection is unaccompanied by any 
outward sign. There is no tenderness displayed when the hand is laid 
upon the body. The coat looks bloomingly. The scurf is not devel- 
oped in increased quantity. The hair does not prove loose or fall off. 
There is nothing visible for ignorance to perceive. The animal feeds 
well, and seems in the highest possible condition. The groom cannot, 
therefore, believe in the presence of disease. Nevertheless, the quad- 
ruped may acutely suffer, especially during the spring and autumn. It 
may even, by the irritation, be provoked to gnaw large patches from the 
sensitive covering of the body ; but the more common form of the dis- 
ease urges the poor horse to destroy the heavy rug in which stable 
attendants are fond of wrapping their charges, before quitting them for 
the night. 

What precise form the irritation assumes, it is impossible to ascertain ; 
but no sooner is the quadruped clothed up, than it begins to fidget. Its 
legs are in almost perpetual motion, and the body repeatedly leans with 
violence against the trevise. The creature is evidently uneasy, and the 
animal's eye watches the groom until that individual, having finished 
his work, retires to the consolation of the adjacent public house. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES. 



287 



No sooner is the animal certain of being alone, than it commences to 
tear oflf the hateful clothing. Large portions are seized between the 
teeth, and these are rent oif with an energy which borders upon mad- 
ness. Nor is the mental fever, which actuates the horse, to be pacified, 
so long as a vestige of the hated envelope remains to be removed. The 
passion seems to be very engrossing while it exists; for, during the 
period, anybody may enter the building, and even approach the irritated 
quadruped, without his presence being observed. But, the feat being 
ended, the creature looks around, seems to recover its recognitions, 
nibbles different portions of its coat, licks the coolest parts of its manger, 
being evidently thirsty, and ultimately lies down, apparently well satis- 
fied with its recent performance. 



'•''V"i* Ivi;*!!!'!;'!!'" 




TEARING THE CLOTHING. 



The recognized remedy for such a condition does not regard the mor- 
bid state out of which the destruction arises ; but it consists in placing 
upon the back of the horse a garment which shall pain the lips, tongue, 
palate and gums when it is grasped by the teeth. Cloths of such a 
description are manufactured of coarse horse-hair, and are commonly 
kept by most harness-makers, so general is their adoption. After such 
a fashion, the biting impulse may be sometimes checked ; but there arc 
quadrupeds which seem to be goaded to still greater violence by the 
device. Other animals, though the cloth of hair acts as a preventive, 
become restless, and e\adently pine under the remedy: their appetite 
fails : their spirit vanishes, and their flesh wastes : nay, the author has 
known the introduction of the favorite cure to be followed by an internal 
and a fatal form of disease. 



288 THE SO-CALLED ^^INCAPACITATING VICES." 

Why should all inhabitants of the stable be subjected to a sameness 
of treatment ? Why should all horses be expected to consume the same 
food; to eat the like quantities of provender; to drink a particular 
amount of water, and to be clothed in uniform, when left for the night ? 
It may please the eye of the groom to behold the animals all wrapped 
. up and bedded down to match, as he quits the stable for the night ; yet, 
where life is concerned, something stronger should regulate arrangements 
than the gratification of a servant's prejudice. 

To propitiate the inclinations or the whims of a retainer, constituted 
no part of the motive which caused the stables to be erected. Such 
places are professedly built /or horses, and the animals, therefore, should 
be primarily regarded. Yet, wherefore oblige a quadruped to be covered 
up Avith a rug, when the creature, by a nightly destruction of the wrap- 
per, asserts the envelope to be objectionable ? Why compel an unwil- 
ling steed to endure that which is not requisite on the score of decency ; 
which cannot be adopted on any plea of appearance ; and which, in the 
most emphatic manner, is declared not pleasant to the life on whose body 
it is suspended ? 

It is impossible to comprehend that the groom possesses any excess 
of modest}'" which can be offended at the notion of a horse sleeping 
naked in the stall; and if the absence of covering is agreeable to the 
party which is principally concerned, it seems odd a reasonable being 
should insist that a contrary practice shall be adopted. Still, persist 
these individuals certainly do ; and even carry their persistence to other 
particulars. The skins of the equine race are as various in degrees of 
sensibility as can be those of human beings. There do exist many men 
who, for pleasure, first soak their bodies in warm baths, and subsequently 
polish the cuticle with the hardest possible of flesh brushes. Others would 
only be gratified were they daily rubbed down with brick bats. On the 
contrary, there exist individuals on whom a 
i-uck in the finest linen Avill inflict a discomfort 
which, in its intensity, almost amounts to an 
agony. 

So there are horse possessing hides to which 
may be applied with impunity the sharpest and 
coarsest of curry-combs. But there also live 
many animals having skins to which the oldest 
and bluntest of those antiquated scratchers will 
occasion a sensation the acuteness of which is 
AN EXCITED HORSE'S MOUTH. ^gg^jgg^j .^ ^^y ^hc violcucG of rcsistauce with 

which the morning's dressing shall be accompanied. Yet, rather than 
obey the hint so energetically conveyed, or discard the employment of. 




THE SO-CALLED •'INCAPACITATING VICES. 



289 



anything with which use has familiarized them, the least venturesome 
of grooms will brave daily danger. In vain does the irritated quad- 
ruped writhe, frisk, stamp, kick, snap and bite, under the infliction; the 
servant has been taught that a curry-comb is an instrument to be applied 
to the skins of horses. The head will be tied up — the leg-strap em- 
ployed; nay, the hobbles and the twitch will be applied, before the 
lesson he has learned to regard in his youth shall be discarded. Such 
tools of the lowest routine are the ignorant in everything which does 
not involve their personal gratifications. 

The consequence is, that because the animal, while being dressed, 
cannot forbear biting at all objects which are near to it, the incisor teeth 
rapidly lose the cutting edges, and become rounded. Such a shape of 
the nippers used to be viewed as indicative of crib biting; but the fal- 
lacy of this notion having been exposed, the idea is generally abandoned. 
Nevertheless, an animal having rounded front teeth would fare badly at 
an equine banquet where the provender had to be cropped from the 
earth. It is, therefore, only prudent to prevent the creature from spoil- 
ing its mouth. To accomplish this, remove the curry-comb ; for, should 
it be allowed to remain in the stable, the chances are very strongly 
against the groom's favorite tool being discarded. Have the skin dressed 




A HORSE, HAVING A SENSITIVE SKIN, 13 DRESSED BETWEEN THK PILLABrBEINS. 



with a penetrating brush ; or, should that prove too sharp, order it to 
be groomed very gently with the wisp and water brush. Animals 
possessed of extremely sensitive skins generally carry very fine coats ; 
therefore they can well afford to dispense with very much labor from 
their stable attendant. 

19 



290 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING YICES." 

The snapping may, from long indulgence, have become confirmed as 
a habit. In that case, nevertheless, ameliorate the dressing ; but, before 
the groom undertakes the cleansing of the skin, the quadrupeds should 
be fixed by two strong pillar-reins, each of which is of sufficient length 
to reach, from opposite sides, to the middle of the dressing stall. The 
head, thus bridled, is comparatively fixed, and is, of course, fastened 
away from any substance which might be seized by the teeth. How- 
ever, the skin is sometimes, when thus tender, loaded with a scurf 
which no curry-comb, however long it may be applied, will do aught 
but increase. In this case, always change the provender, and particu- 
larly see the food is properly prepared ere it is presented. Give, daily, 
one ounce of liquor arsenicalis, in a pint of cold water; and every morn- 
ing damp the skin, not the hair, with a mixture composed of animal 
glycerin, one part; rose-water, two parts. 

For an animal that destroyed its rugs, the first measure is, to refuse 
all further supply of such articles. Then attend to the food, after the 
method already advised ; next anoint the body with glycerin and rose- 
water, subsequently employing a hay wisp regularly night and morning. 
Place the animal in a cool, loose box, and, if possible, leave both window 
and half the door open. When night arrives, permit the quadruped, at 
its pleasure, to move in or out of the stable — allowing a piece of rather 
closely bitten meadow land for exercise, when the sun is down and the 
flies are at rest. Take the animal in before insects begin to throng, 
which they seldom do till the sun has gained full power. By way of 
medicine, daily give one ounce of liquor arsenicalis, in a pint of cold 
water, together with one quart of good (not publican's) beer. Keep 
the bowels regular with bran mashes or with green meat. There can 
be no necessity why all labor should be relinquished: the work, how- 
ever, ought not to be excessive, or the pace too exhausting; for any 
extraordinary exertion is apt to lead to excoriations which are, in their 
turn, disposed to end in large and obstinate sores, when the skin is in 
an irritable condition. 

Every part of the horse is of importance to the owner : the teeth are 
not secondary to the feet; the legs are of no less value than the lungs; 
and the skin cannot be esteemed more lightly than the eyes. Indeed, 
every rider ought to make himself acquainted with the appearances 
natural to the health}^ eye of the horse ; for a shying steed will eifectu- 
ally destroy the pleasure of an entire day. The horseman should notice 
the eyes of every animal he intends to mount. As a precaution, such 
a measure is imperative ; for, being forewarned, he may be prepared to 
encounter the danger into which defective vision is almost certain to 
lead the rider. For the method of proceeding, when examining the 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 291 

eyes of a liorse, the reader is referred to the "Illustrated Horse Doctor," 
(pp. 49 and 56,) wherein the proper plan is amply detailed. 

The reason for recommending what the reader may regard as a trouble- 
some acquisition and a strange knowledge for a gentleman to bore over, 
is, because those livery stable-keepers who let horses out to strangers, 
can hardly be expected to maintain a very valuable stud for such pur- 
poses. It is not asserted that these tradesmen knowingly send out very 
defective animals ; but they could not, perhaps, in the way of business, 
warrant, as decidedly sound, any inhabitant of their stables. The eyes 
are the parts which generally fail. Exposed to a tainted atmosphere 
and fixed close to a whitened wall, when at home; wearing blinkers 
unpleasantly near to the organs, when abroad; while, at other times, 
they carry a saddle, having the eye exposed to the full glare of the 
sun, — it is not a subject for wonder that bodies so sensitively endowed 
and delicately organized should become diseased. 

Added to the natural results of such causes is the treatment experi- 
enced from brutal and ignorant fellows, whom a few shillings have 
invested with a whip. Such persons are fond of slashing the horse 
over the head, and may thus produce partial opacity of the cornea. (See 
"Illustrated Horse Doctor," p. 46.) The effect of imperfect vision is to 
create alarm in a highly imaginative but an excessively timid animal. 
Shying is the consequence, and this act is as various in its developments 
as its causes may be numerous. Probably this will be best explained 
by relating a circumstance which, a few years ago, occurred to a friend 
of the author's. 

A young gentleman, native of Ireland, complained one street was so 
like another, that though he should live a thousand years in London, he 
should still see nothing of the town. He wished to view the suburbs 
to ascertain the situation of the metropolis ; with this purpose in view, 
he, one afternoon, hired a horse at a West End livery stables, and trotted 
upon the Uxbridge Road. Everything went pleasantly till steed and 
rider had reached Ealing Common, when, there being nothing in view, 
the gentleman gave the quadruped its head, and allowed it to proceed 
at its own pace. The pair, however, had only gone a short distance, 
when, from some motive not recognizable to human perception, the 
creature was seized with a violent fit of "swerving;" or, in other words, 
it suddenly left the road, and, moving sideways, began describing a 
rather wide semicircle upon the common, which was, at the place, 
fortunately smooth and level. 

But Ealing Common appears to be a favorite spot with laundresses, 
who there hang out their wet linen. The rider was dragged under one 
of the lines, loaded with damp clothes, while his horse pushed against 



292 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

an elderly washerwoman, and, spite of her screams and resistance, pro- 
pelled her a considerable space. The gentleman, almost thrown by the 
unexpected motion of his nag, and half smothered by the wet garments, 
which clung about his head, was wholly at a loss to comprehend the 
cause of the female screams, rendered yet more discordant by the shrill 
cries of her terrified grandson. 




SWERVING. 



When, however, he understood everything, a donation calmed the 
agitation of the female, while, hastening to a roadside inn, he found a 
man who was willing to take the horse back to the livery stables. The 
rider returned by another conveyance, and he has never since trusted 
himself outside an unknown animal. 

Swerving, however, is no more than a mild form of shying, when com- 
pared with the numerous evils which result from defects of the visual 
organs. Every possible variety of eccentric gait is not to be imagined, 
much less is it to be described. One consequence of this peculiarity, 
perhaps the worst shape it can assume, is bolting or running away. 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 293 

When a horse is thus impelled, it is, as was insisted upon in the "Illus- 
trated Horse Doctor," useless to tug at the reins or to slash with the 
whip. Such acts may aggravate the peril, but they cannot check the 
movement, which originates in a dread that lifts its victim above all 
earthly restraints. The brain is then excited and confused ; the pain, 
which the body shall fail to recognize, nevertheless may prove an ad- 
ditional stimulant to the wildness that approaches near to positive 
despair. 

The quadruped is not to blame. It has been guilty of no fault. Its 
behavior may displease its present master ; but the horse has no abihty 
to struggle with a fear which was generated by disease. The alarm was 
the offspring of a cause beyond the aid of medicine and removed from 
the help of surgery. Such an animal, however, should not be left en- 
tirely to its fate; for "running away "is apt to become more frequent 
upon repetition. The cjcs, thus afflicted, should be covered when the 
quadruped is taken abroad ; for it is safer to sit behind a creature which 
is sightless, than one which is possessed only of a dangerous or of an 
imperfect vision. 

Then, to explain the motives for that forbearance and to render clear 
the prudence of that gentleness which the reader has been recommended 
to practice. Let it be inquired, can pain be esteemed a corrective of 
terror? It was an apprehension of suffering which created the alarm. 
To render such a dread a reality, does not appear to be the readiest 
method of dispelling the feeling which has been generated by the imagin- 
ary possibility of agony being encountered. The quickest plan by which 
any particular sensation can be destroyed, certainly is to excite another 
emotion that is the opposite of the one we are desirous should be dis- 
pelled. Then awaken an assurance of security, and, of course, alarm is 
annihilated. It may not be a popular or an heroic line of treatment 
which the author has presumed to propose; but, assuredly, the safest 
way to destroy a fear is to kindle an emotion which shall be antagonistic 
to that it is desirable to remove. 

Such conduct, however, would be directly opposite to what is at 
present generally exemplified by the majority of mankind. A horse 
bolts, or it runs away, and the act is hastily concluded to originate in 
a "vicious propensity" which the animal delights in indulging. The 
creature is spoken of as a "bolter." The topmost speed and the blindest 
flight is, by equestrians, regarded as the gratification of a malicious spirit, 
and, thus considered, only elicits a firm resolution to subdue its exhibi- 
tion at every hazard. The reins are sawn and the whip is plied, until 
agony has driven terror to madness, and some awful disaster puts a 
. termination to the unsightly proceeding. 



294 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 

The following is intended to be an accurate representation of an inci- 
dent which the author witnessed, some years ago, in the neighborhood 
of Holloway. In the issue, however, no person was injured ; even the 
horse escaped unharmed. It would have been difficult to say which of 
the principal actors was the most frightened. Probably the alarm of 
each was as great as it was possible to be ; but the breakage of the shafts, 
the rupture of the traces, and the snapping of the reins mainly secured 
the immunity of all. No one, having seen the aspect borne by the event 
at one time, could have foretold how it was to terminate; assuredly the 
fortunate result was not facilitated by the gentleness or the self-posses- 
sion of the driver. That person did his best, no doubt without the 
intention of whipping up a catastrophe : he acted according to the re- 
cognized rules ; but it was owing to the reflection such a scene gave rise 
to that the author was led to recognize the folly of that behavior which 
is generally displayed under the like alarming circumstances. 




BUNinNO AWAT. 



Before concluding the present chapter, the reader is earnestly coun- 
s^ed to discard the many foolish tales he may have heard about the 
horse being naturally a "vicious animal." What reward is reaped from 
the indulgence of the creature's imaginary designs? Death, injury, or 
disfigurement I Such consequences might ensue upon the promptings 
of insanity ; but no one, however, has supposed that madness instigated 
the conduct which man recognizes as "vice" in the hoi'se. There is, in 
the world's opinions, a wide distinction separating the mad horse from 
the "vicious brute." The attributed "vice" is certainly not recognized 



THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES." 295 

as madness, although it may be accompanied by the temporary absence 
of consciousness. The vicious acts display too great a similarity through- 
out the entire equine race, distributed over the world, to be reconciled 
with the presence of recognition ; while they are too regular in their 
development and far too heedless in their execution to accord with the 
promptings of any wicked disposition which would be dependent upon 
individual inclination. 

Then, the sameness which pervades the entire group of supposed 
"equine vices," cannot be reasonably accounted for in accordance with 
the popular belief. In the human being, each example of a vicious dispo- 
sition is conspicuous for adopting an independent and an eccentric course 
of action, though it occasionally practices imitation. Can animals in- 
struct or mimic one another ? Have horses, only, the power to com- 
municate " vice " to their companions ? Can they, only, teach self-mutila- 
tion, and learn suicide ? That is not to be credited. But will the reader, 
viewing them as inferior beings, consider the conduct of all as regulated 
by the impulses of instinct, generated by sudden emotion ? Then, 
sameness is by no means extraordinary. Eating is in man an instinctive 
act. The modes of preparing food are various, and the methods of its 
division are as dissimilar in different nations, — for these actions are 
shaped by conviction or by reason ; but the manner in which the instinc- 
tive portion of the act is performed, the way in which the sustenance 
is masticated and is swallowed, though in some degree influenced by 
refinement, is mainly similar in all regions, and in every race of human 
beings. 

To run away from danger is an instinct in a horse. The animal does 
not fly from battle, only because man has deceived it into a faith that there 
is no danger where gunpowder is consumed. Terror renders the animal 
blind and unconscious. It has no more power to check the last effect 
than it has ability to contend against the first consequence. Pain induces 
a natural desire to escape from the cause of suffering. Its wish may be 
gratified at the sacrifice of property ; but property is an artificial institu- 
tion, of which most animals have hitherto refused recognition. Same- 
ness of cause generally induces like results. Idleness leads to mischief; 
satiety promotes waste ; terror generates alarm ; and itching provokes 
scratching. These acts in the animal may be imprudently indulged; 
but the horse, having no conception of a future, of course cannot nicely 
calculate probabilities. Thus, if we run through the list of the so-called 
"vices," each will admit of a very easy and of a remarkably ready solu- 
tion. 

TiCt no man, therefore, speak of a "vicious horse." Let no reasona- 
ble being so far forget himself as to attribute design as a motive to the 



296 THE SO-CALLED "INCAPACITATING VICES.' 

creature whicli nature has endowed only with instinct. Needless torture, 
though inflicted on a brute, rebounds to strike humanity. But mankind 
have not yet so emerged from barbarism as to have entirely lost all relish 
for those prejudices which justify cruelty. The written history of the 
world is the sad record of a long struggle midst blood and suffering. 
Only of late years have men dared to relax the laws, and only recently 
have they sought to lessen crime, by educating the debased to perceive 
the beauty of goodness. Might not a similar spirit, applied to horses, 
diminish the number and lessen the fatality of equestrian accidents ? At 
all events, such a suggestion deserves a trial. It should be experimented 
with, if not for its novelty, because it proposes the adoption of behavior 
which must gratify the better feelings of the master, and because it holds 
forth a reasonable prospect of decreasing some of the more serious evils 
by which human Hfe is, at the present moment, too frequently en- 
dangered. 

Before joining in the cry against equine vice, always investigate the 
act which is adduced to justify the prejudice. Do this quietly. Look 
fairly at the surrounding circumstances, and think how these might pos- 
sibly act upon a timid and a non-reasoning creature. Find out the 
cause, if possible ; because, by so doing, you will best serve your own 
interest. Knowing the cause, it is probable you may eradicate the effect. 
But, before this is undertaken, the party must be prepared to exercise his 
utmost patience ; for animals are slow to learn, and have to conquer their 
terrors before they can exemplify the easiest of lessons. Only, once 
taught, they are retentive scholars; and, by the pride they evince in 
their acquirements, reward their instructor. 

To stimulate the proprietor unto that course of conduct which is 
recommended above, it surely must be sufficient to remind him that the 
opposite method has been long as it has been most perseveringly tried. 
Severity, however, although enthusiastically exemplified, notoriously has 
only imperiled man, without in any way amending the habits of the 
animal. Therefore the reader is asked, if it is reasonable to continue 
the proceeding which, having been largely tested, has induced nothing 
but misfortune ? 



CHAPTER IX. 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE, 



When considering this subject, tlie writer is freed from all restraints. 
He has to describe things which exist only in his own imagination; not 
to depict any object which has been embodied as a reality, or which has 
been fancied by another individual. The author, however, will en- 
deavor to picture such an edifice as in some of its modifications any 
one, keeping a horse, should possess ability to erect. 

To some persons the following description may appear so grand as to 
border on the ridiculous. Compared with existing buildings, the 
author's proposal, no doubt, must seem to be of unnecessary dimensions. 
But a question of this nature is decided, not by what it seems but by 
that which it actually is. Is any provision hereafter made, that health 
does not demand ? If the place is large, so are the animals which are 
to be harbored within its walls. What is unnecessary, or where is the 
article which is useless ? As to the accommodation being too ample, 
what would a Saxon king of Britain say, could he be resuscitated and 
made to behold the palaces which her present Majesty possesses ? Nay, 
what would a workman who had existed during the reign of "glorious 
old Harry" exclaim, could he contemplate the accommodations which 
surround his descendants of the modern time ? 

Stables, as they now exist, are tainted with all the evils of antiquity. 
Improvement has changed the homes of the people, and has even 
amended the prison of the caged songster; but it has entirely skipped 
over the jail of the horse. The place and the people about it smack of 
a time when corruption was the rule and filthiness was a fashion. The 
question therefore to be considered is, not what stables are, but what 
they should be. What the animal requires to maintain it in its beauty, 
in its health, and in its usefulness, is that which we now wish to ascer- 
tain. All the world has witnessed how much the quadruped can endure, 
when the master cares not for its comfort, is careless about its health, 
and does not study the requirements of its nature. 

Bricks and mortar, however expensive such articles may be, are about 

(297) 



298 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

the most economical purchases which the horse owner can invest his 
cash in. It is folly to pay large sums for thew and muscle, when the 
place in which such properties are to be lodged will destroy the health 
and undermine the strength that are imperative to their preservation. 
One or two deaths in a prime stud may cost more dearly than would the 
largest of the proposed buildings. 

The money which shall be expended upon the improved stable must 
not be viewed as cash sunk in an unremunerative object, but as a sum 
invested in that which will immediately yield an exorbitant interest. It 
will decrease the veterinary surgeon's bill ; it will conserve the health 
and prolong the usefulness of the horse ; it will put the animal in better 
heart, and will enable the proprietor to dispense with those repeated 
purchases which now occasion the horse owner to stare at every fresh 
steed he chances to meet, and to inquire "if it be for sale?" 

When we wish to raise any erection, we should, before we begin to 
plan, thoroughly comprehend the purposes whicK the new edifice is to 
serve. A stable is not the home of a horse, in the same sense that a 
house is the home of a human being. The animal has not one room 
for day and another for night. It cannot retire ; it must remain in its 
compartment ; and it becomes the author's duty to point out what is im- 
perative to render the limited space a healthful abode. 

In the first place, everything like a stall must be abolished — the uses 
of such abominations being supplied by loose boxes. Each box is to be 
eighteen feet square ; of these there are to be six, ranged in pairs ; three 
upon either side of the interior. Every box shall be rendered dry and 
sweet by six deep gutters, three on either side ; and all emptying into 
a central branch drain, which discharges its contents into a main drain, 
running through the length of the entire building. 

The gutters commence eighteen inches from the side divisions of the 
boxes ; the first is situated three feet from the external wall. Six feet 
divides the first from the second gutter ; the same space separates the 
second from the third gutter, which is removed only three feet from the 
central partition. 

The flooring or pavement between the gutters is arranged in gentle 
undulations, like the walks in a gentleman's garden. It is raised three 
inches higher in the center of each division than where its borders term- 
inate in the gutter. The two pieces of pavement at either end of the 
box begin at the elevation of three inches, and sink to the level of the 
lowest surface as they approach the gutter. Thus every portion of the 
pavement wilW incline one in twelve, a fall of fully sufficient magnitude 
to allow of the speedy disappearance of fluid, which is always ejected 
with force and in quantity. The gutters all terminate in "stink traps," 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 299 

which give admission into the branch drains ; these last, as well as the 
main drain, consisting of circular earthen pipes. 

The undulations of the pavement not only facilitate the speedy re- 
moval of fluid, and thus tend to keep m a state of purity the atmosphere 




MODES OF STAVmNO AFFORDED BY AN UNDULATED PAVEMENT. 

within the building, but the surface presents every variety of standing 
ground to the choice of the quadruped. The animal, by this arrange- 
ment, can select an upward slope, a downward incline, or a level plane, 
whereon to rest the feet ; an ability of appropriation which intelligence 
will not be slow to comprehend or tardy to appreciate. 




DIAGRAMATIC SECTION OF A SUPERFICIAL GUTTER, SEVERAL OF WHICH KEEP DRY THE LOOSE BOXES. 

1 1. Tho Dutch clinkers. 

2 2. The prepared ground on which tho gutters and the pavement repose. 
3. The semicircular earthenware gutter along which the fluid flows, covered by the loose iron grating. 

Each gutter should be two inches wide and two inches deep. They 
ought to commence at the depth of a Dutch clinker from the surface, 
and be covered by a perforated loose iron grating, the holes in which are 



300 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



a quarter of an inch wide, one inch long, and the last distance asunder. 
Thus should the horse, when down, lie over one of these gutters, the 
body cannot then repose on a good conductor of heat. 

The gratings are not flat, but incline on every side toward the open- 
ings. This pattern was selected, because the author has beheld flat bars 
eaten into by the acridity of the fluid, and retaining liquid that yielded 
an abominable stench. Neither are these coverings fixed into their situ- 




PATTERN OF THE LOOSE IRON GRATING WHICU COVERS TUE GUTTERS. 

ations. They are merely laid upon the side? of the earthen gutters^ 
which are three inches Avide at the openings ; the iron can afford to 
dispense with other fastening than its own weight supplies. Should 
the channel which the grating guards ever become clogged, then the 
easy lift of the metal-work will allow the gutter to be cleansed. 




CROSS SECTION OF THE DRAINS IN LOOSE BOXES. 

Supposed to be seen on the line D E, in the plan of drains to be shortly introduced. 




LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE DRAINS IN LOOSE BOXES. 

Supposed to be viewed on the line E F, which is marked on the plan of drains. 

The openings, which are ample to permit the escape of all liquid, are 
purijosely made small, because rats and other vermin too frequently 
enter stables by the drains. It is by no means unusual for such pests, 
where they are numerous, to attack and gnaw the hoofs of living ani- 
mals. The horn is without sensation; therefore it can be gradually 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



301 



removed without the horse being at all inconvenienced ; but, assuredly, 
the proprietor will be vexed at a destruction which necessitates the 
quadruped should be idle until nature has repaired the loss of substance. 

The branch drains, which commence at twenty inches from the sur- 
face, can be only entered through a stink trap ; that article also opposes 
an obstacle to the free passage of vermin. All these branches terminate 
in the main drain, which, where the tube begins, is situated thirty-four 
inches within the soil, and, as it proceeds, has a fall of about one foot in 
fifteen feet. 

Neither the pipes, the gutter, nor the clinkers are placed within or 
rest upon unprepared soil. Such may be the usual plan after which 
most stables are now built; for the drainage of these places does not 
generally extend beneath the surface. The pavement of the contem- 
plated stable, however, is to be raised two feet above the level of the 
ground on which it is erected. For the entire space which the structure 
will occupy, the soil is, in the first instance, to be removed to the depth 
of one foot. After the foundations have been properly laid, the walls 
are then to be raised till they are built up two feet above the natural 
level of the surrounding surface. 

A layer of large flints or of coarse brick rubbish is then to be thrown 
in; this layer is to be two feet six inches in 
thickness. Within this, the main and the branch 
drains are to be arranged, though the principal 
drain will also have, toward its termination, to 
be sunk into the earth. The remaining six 
inches is to be filled in with coarse sand ; upon 
this the gutters are to commence. 

The gutters are two inches deep. They all 
originate at five inches from the upper surface 
of the clinkers. The shallowest has a fall of 
fifteen inches, but others have a much greater 
inclination, as all empty into the branch drains which communicate with 
the main drain. This last, sinking deeper as it proceeds, quits the build- 
ing at a depth of six feet six inches from the exterior of the sand within 
the walls of the stable. 

The contemplated structure will be thus thrice drained. First, there 
will be the deep tubular main and branch drains ; next, there is the sand 
and brick rubbish ; while, lastly, there is the surface drainage effected by 
the grated gutters. So much pains have been consciously bestowed 
upon the dryness of the building, because nothing will, in the end, prove 
more detrimental to the horse than confinement in a damp ahode. Not 
only does perfect drainage conserve the health of the equine inhabitants, 










DIAGRAM, hXPL.VXATORT OP THE 
MANNER IX WHICH THE GROUND 
OF THE STABLE IS FORMED. 



302 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



but it likewise tends to preserve the bricks, the mortar, and the expensive 
fittings that should adorn every stable. 




PLAN OF DRAINS. 



S indicates tlie position of a trap door, which leads to the coal-cellar under the gig-honse. 

The dotted line, connecting the two letters D E, represents tBe situation of the supposed section of 
drains, previously introduced. 

The dotted line, indicated by the letters E F, points to the supposed situation of the cross section of 
drains, which has likewise been exhibited. 

According to the supposed view, which forms the frontispiece to the 
present volume, there is a free but covered space, twelve feet wide, ex- 
tending all round the building. The soil of this free space, covered ride 
or ambulatory, should also have been removed, and subsequently have 
been filled up, after the plan already described, as necessary for the inte- 
rior of the stables. It need not, however, be paved with clinkers, as 
sand forms a better ground for a horse to exercise upon than can possibly 
be made with the hardest of known bricks. 

The roof, having sheltered the ride, terminates immediately over a 
metal gutter. This gutter communicates with five pipes upon the west- 
ern and upon the eastern sides, with two pipes upon the southern, and 
with three upon the northern aspects of the building. 

The roofing of the ambulatory is upheld by thii'ty-one posts, each 
twelve feet high, and the same distance apart. Between every two of 
these posts, on all sides of the stable save the front, are placed smaller 
uprights, which reach only to six feet. By these smaller posts are sup- 
ported one end of three movable bales on either side, the opposite extremi- 
ties of the bales resting against the larger posts ; each bale being six feet 
long, and reaching from the small uprights to the main supports. The 
first bale is one foot from the ground ; while the others are at equal dis- 
tances, and so placed as to leave four inches of clear pole to project above 
the highest rail. 

The pipes leading from the metallic gutter are fastened to the pillars 
and empty into a drain, which encircles the building and receives the 
water from the roof; it also conveys away that which is used in washing 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 30E 

the carriages, or for general purposes. This is carried to any convenient 
pond, while the liquid manure of the stable is, by the tubular pipes, 
conveyed into a tank situated at least twenty yards from the principal 
building. 

Drainage of the entire roof is thus assured, and the dryness of the 
ambulatory in all weathers is rendered a certainty. No large stable can 
approximate to its requirements, in which a covered ride is not provided. 
It is, however, by no means uncommon to behold grooms trotting the 
animals on which they are seated, and which the servant is supposed to 
be taking out for the morning exercise ; but if a horse is to be mounted 
and put to its paces by the man as well as by the master, it necessarily 
follows that the quadruped must perform double duty, or endure exces- 
sive wear. 

Many grooms habitually do more than merely ride. These men are, 
generally, excited when in the saddle, and removed from all chance of 
supervision. Some of these individuals delight in antics. Most stable 
attendants love to display the spirit of the quadrupeds they wait upon ; 
and all of lively dispositions, Avhen their companions in service are look- 
ing on, naturally strive to convert duty into a pleasure. The horse is his 
own for the time, the animal being then entirely subject to the servant's 
authority, and he being far away from all that might control his actions. 

An anecdote will, perhaps, best illustrate the above observations. A 
medical gentleman, established in the north of England, possessed a 
handsome bay gelding, for which he had recently given a heavy price. 
Soon after the groom professed to have brought the quadruped into 
working condition, the doctor began to use the animal for his afternoon 
exercise. He was fond of a particular road ; but he could not persuade 
his horse to pass a certain low, roadside tavern. At the door of this 
place the quadruped would always stand still. Punishment was of no 
further use than to make the animal, much to its master's disgust, leave 
the door and bolt into the yard. 

There was nothing, then, to be done but to turn the creature's head 
homeward. No sooner did the quadruped's face point in this direction, 
than the steed began to exhibit a speed which seemed to say the doctor 
was riding on affair of life or death. The gelding, in consequence of the 
disgust which its strange proceedings had awakened, was shortly after- 
ward sold at "an awful sacrifice;" nor does the medical gentleman, to 
this hour, comprehend the reason of his dumb servant's eccentric be- 
havior. 

The public house was famous as the resort of grooms. Here, "early 
purl " was prepared in perfection ; while, at later hours, nothing could 
excel either the "neat liquors" or the "dog's nose" which the tavern 



304 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

provided. The horse was accustomed to stand before the door; or, 
during those days when the doctor might walk abroad, the animal was 
concealed within the yard. Intelligence had learned its lesson, and its 
owner, being a timid rider, wanted the resolution necessary to force his 
slave to receive and to obey a new instruction. 

The foregoing anecdote should also enforce the wisdom of masters 
making some further acquaintance with their living property than sim- 
ply to know it for its uses. There are, however, a numerous class to 
whom anecdotes are not illustrations, but nothing more than amusing 
stories, easily invented and readily embellished. With these people, 
nevertheless, seeing is believing. The writer, accordingly, with all 
humility, invites his readers to peep down some of the many dealers' 
yards, which they must pass during a morning's walk through the 
streets of London. 

One side of such a place is always thickly littered with straw, and 
securely roofed in. Slowly riding up and down this covered way may 
be beheld a mounted groom, who is leading another horse. Nov.', horse 
dealers are not deficient in knowingness, and many of them have, during 
former years, been in service themselves. Therefore, most of the class 
are well acquainted with the secrets of domestics ; and they never trust 
a steed to be exercised where some of the family may not overlook the 
groom. "Oh, yes, they do!" the reader may exclaim; "for I have 
often remarked 'breaks' being driven through the highways of the 
metropolis." Perfectly true 1 Such articles are to be met v/ith in the 
middle or the after-part of the day, propelled by high-actioned and well- 
matched horses. A little inspection will show the reins are in the pos- 
session of no ordinary groom. The master or the foreman guides the 
quadrupeds which are then being shown to the public, and are not sim- 
ply raw purchases receiving exercise. 

Dealers always exercise the horses at home; the windows of the 
house invariably face the ride. Every London inhabitant may not be 
able to command a covered way opposite his drawing-room windows ; 
but he may prevent his servant from playing tricks with his animals, by 
ordering the man, when out exercising the creatures, to pass the family 
residence at stated periods. By such an arrangement, some of those 
strange accidents, which occasionally spoil the proprietor's breakfast, 
and which are ever reported to him as having been done by the horse 
in the night, might be prevented. While the owner, by claiming a right 
of supervision, would also instruct his servant that the quadrupeds the 
servant is engaged to attend upon are not absolutely given up to his 
pleasure. 

The proprietor will, however, gain much by never permitting his 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



305 



animals to be exercised ofif the premises. This can only be done in the 
country, or where an ambulatory surrounds the stable. Under a shel- 
tering roof all weathers are immaterial ; the owner can easily ascertain 
whether his commands are shirked or fulfilled. A sick or a lame horse 
can be led about upon such a spot ; for the soil, consisting of sand, and 
being always kept properly watered, is cool and soft to the feet, as well 
as free from dust; while a machine called a "tell-tale" will in some 
measure announce the time which the quadruped may be kept walking ; 
it will also bear testimony as to the rate at which the man travels. 




A PEEP INTO A dealer's YARD. 



These things, when supervision is impossible, are now left entirely to 
the groom; whereas a "tell-tale," fixed at any part of the building, will 
render the rate of exercise cognizable to an absent master. 

Exercise should never, save in illness, be given at a less pace than 
four miles an hour ; the horses, while it is administered, should always 

20 



306 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

be clothed more lightly than when standing still within the stable. It 
is fashionable for a groom to exercise a horse in full body-clothes : such 
a custom seems like tempting cough and cold, to which the quadruped, 
in this climate, is too much disposed. It must feel the change when its 
owner rides forth upon its unclothed body, and must suffer severely, 
should the master not return to the stable till the sun is down. ' Any 
active man should with perfect ease walk four miles in an hour; but 
such a rate is quick enough to oblige the animal to proceed at a gentle 
trot, which should not provoke perspiration, but will be sufficient exer- 
tion to promote a healthy glow of the skin. 

Each groom, when on the ambulatory, should walk between two 
horses, holding a rein in either hand. Should one of the animals show 
signs of excitement, he is to leave the quiet one behind to the care of 
any person who may be at hand, and to run once or twice round the 
building with the spirited steed. Such a manoeuvre is all that is neces- 
sary to quiet those creatures which, on first quitting the boxes, may skip 
or prance about. 

"When returned to the stable, the horse does not enter solitary confine- 
ment. Its loose box is eighteen feet square, and is inclosed by a fence 
seven feet high. Only four feet of this partition is composed of close 
inch and a half boarding. At that height, a stout rail, having its edges 
rounded, is fixed upon the topmost edge of the wood-work. From this 
rail spring round iron bars, placed three inches asunder, and having the 
higher extremity inserted into another rail, which is also rounded. 

Since the author, many years ago, first thought of an open trevise, he 
is happy to see the idea has been generally adopted. Too many of the 
parties who embrace the notion, however, make it secondary to ornamen- 
tation, and compel the simple intention to assume the shape of scroll 
work or of an elaborated pattern. The object is to permit the prisoners 
to see and to communicate one with another. Both of these purposes 
are better attained by a straight iron bar than by a fanciful decoration, 
which last, moreover, must be further objectionable on the score of ex- 
pense. 

All needful security would be well assured by an inclosure which, 
unlike the common trevise, would allow the quadruped to see its com- 
panions, and to exchange those recognitions which must lighten the 
tedium of captivity. Nor can the writer comprehend why such simple 
pleasures should be denied to these gentle creatures, which most men 
imprison more closely than carnivorous ferocities are commonly confined. 
The prevention of certain deadly diseases might apply to the stables of 
an inn ; but such occurrences have no right to be regarded as probabili- 
ties when a gentleman's establishment has to be considered. 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



mi 



The bars forming the upper portion of the divisions are not so close 
nor so bulky but the interspaces will allow the horses, after the Austra- 
lian mode of cementing friendships, "to rub noses," or to exchange large 
draughts of fragrant breath with their fellow captives. Such innocent 
familiarities will often lead to lasting friendships, from the establishment 




SECTION OF THE LOOSB BOXES. 

Supposed to be taken where the dotted line A B is situated upon the ground plan. 



of which the proprietor will reap an advantage. Quadrupeds perform 
much more gayly when harnessed with a companion that they love ; and 
should the owner be, at any time, pressed for room, one or two additional 
spare boxes can always be commanded by allowing equine friends to 
enjoy the same compartment- 
There is, however, running throughout society, a strange prejudice 
against permitting any communication between the inhabitants of the 
stable. Such a dislike cannot be justified by appealing to nature, as 
horses, when free to exercise a choice, always congregate in herds. 
Neither is it warranted by universal custom. In cavalry stables, the 
quadrupeds are merely separated by bales, or by poles suspended at 
either extremity by chains, and hanging between the animals. The habit 
also does not gain any support from consistency of conduct ; since the 
gentleman who shall shudder at the possibility of any communion in his 
stable, will, nevertheless, allow numerous equine creatures to assemble 
together, and leave them without check, when he turns his stud into the 
field to be "freshened up" by a "run at grass," 

The boxes have each a distinct entrance. The doors are fixed in the 
wall, and open upon the ambulatory. Each entrance is nine feet high 
and six feet six inches wide, all sharp edges and projecting iron-work, as 
hinges, latches, locks, etc., being strictly forbidden. Such things often 
injure animals while in the act of passing through these openings, and 
should never be permitted to project in any well-managed establishment. 
The folding doors are divided into two parts, though not absolutely 
in the center, since the lower portion extends only four feet from the 
ground. The upper part can be thrown wide, without releasing the 



808 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



quadruped. The ventilation is thereby rendered far purer, while the 
captive is indulged with a more animated view than the walls of the 
interior can afford. The quadrupeds will protrude their heads through 
such spaces, and remain in that position for successive hours, looking 
the pictures of mild contentment, and contemplating liberty, which a 
generous nature appears to have relinquished almost without regret. A 
simple creature may here in shade enjoy the summer breeze, as it blows 
aside the forelock ; for if man is, by his position, forced to confine the 
steed, he is not compelled to aggravate the sufferings which necessarily 
attend the condition of captivity. 




A HORSE LOOKINQ THROUGH THE HALF-OPENEO STABLE DOOR. 



The doorway, being of those dimensions which have been already 
described, should afford all necessary security, especially when the groom 
adopts the proper method of conducting an animal through the ample 
space. 

No possible accident should impress the memory of the captive with 
the notion that doors and anguish are associated one with the other. 
The habit of the animal, being accustomed to advance the head through 
the upper space, would, moreover, be of some service in dispelling all 
idea of pain, should the impression have been received prior to the horse 
coming into the possession of its present owner. The sight also of the 



STABLES AS THET SHOULD BE. 



man, to whom the affectionate creature may be attached, would, more- 
over, attract the notice and inspire the confidence of timidity. 




CONDUCTINQ THE HORSE THROUGH AX ORDINARf STABLE DOOR. 



The lower division of tlie door should, on fine nights, after dusk, be 
opened, that the prisoner may stretch its limbs and bathe its hoof in the 
evening dew. So the grass is kept sufficiently short, not to afford more 
than a nibble, no harm, but much good, will arise from sanctioning so 
innocent a luxury as a stroll in the free air. The eye of the horse fits 
the creature to roam by night ; and man should, by this time, have suf- 
fered enough to cause a doubt as to the wisdom of crossing nature in 
her many wonderful provisions for the welfare of her children. 

Such a suggestion may startle the prejudices which are inherent in the 
proprietors of most training stables. These places are, however, chiefly 
situated on the open downs, where ground is cheap, and the herbage 
scarcely affords a bite for the close-feeding sheep. Half an acre of such 
land could, without much expense, be attached to each box. On to this 



310. STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

the flock might be turned by day ; but so much Uberty could be afforded 
the equine captive during the night. The racer being reared for speed, 
it is surely wrong to cramp its limbs by too stringent a confinement ! 

Something also is attained, beneficial to other parties than the quad- 
rupeds, by having the doors of the boxes to open on the ambulatory. 
The necessity for mounting many animals within the stables would 
thereby be avoided ; while the groom, upon rainy days, need not exert a 
dangerous haste, for fear of wetting his best livery. Hurry is never a 
safe emotion, when exhibited within the stable. The inhabitants, when 
they behold their attendant looking vexed, see him move quickly, and 
hear him speak loudly, from such signs infer danger; or timidity flushes 
with a certainty of his displeasure. It is the fault of the present race 
of stable-men, that they regard the horse as a senseless thing ; whereas 
the dumb are always the observant, and, generally, are very sympa- 
thetic. They draw conclusions from scenes and acts which it may be 
beyond their stretch of reason to accurately comprehend. Being liable 
to misconstrue, the less they see of exciting spectacles the better. 

Within the loose box there is no rack for hay, to strain the horses' 
necks, and shake seeds into their eyes, which must be open to direct the 
teeth. The ordinary manger is also absent. The horse does not sit to 
eat, nor can it lift the food to the mouth ; but naturally it lowers the 
head to its gratification, and thus has no need to be accommodated with 
exalted fixtures. As it can with ease feed off the ground, why should 
man, in the nineteenth century, persist in forcing the animal, which he 
domesticates, to forego the habits which nature has engrafted on ex- 
istence ? 

No rope fastens an animal directly under the opening to a dirty hay- 
loft. No puffs of cold wind, therefore, can blow upon the quadruped 
through such an aperture, which is not a loss, for horses are very sus- 
ceptible to colds, which modern stables are ingeniously arranged to 
encourage. Like all life, when hotly and impurely inclosed, the steeds 
become morbidly delicate : the pampered daughters of the wealthy 
cannot, possibly, be more vulnerable to evil influences than are those 
equine slaves, whose service demands a body vigorous with health, 
strong and able to encounter all the seasons in their vicissitudes. 

There are, within the building, three small compartments, placed 
against the outer wall of each box, and resting upon the ground. Two 
are situated on one side of the entrance, the third stands by itself in the 
opposite corner. All project eighteen inches from the wall, and two are 
eighteen inches high. One compartment is used for water, and is raised 
two feet, being, as regards length, of the same dimensions. One is in- 
tended to hold prepared food — this is three feet long ; while that meant 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



311 



to receive the occasional allowance of grass extends one foot beyond the 
last dimension. The bottoms of the food receptacles are both raised six 
inches from the level of the stable ; an arrangement which hopes to an- 
ticipate any strain upon the muscles of the neck, should the animal be 
more than usually compact in its developments. 

Certain horse proprietors are loud in their commendations of cut food, 
which they assert can be eaten quickly, and, therefore, allows so much 
longer a period for resting the body. Stable condiments also are adver- 
tised as fattening and appetizing adjuncts. To both propositions the 
author must object. The body's rest depends not upon the quickness 
with which the contents of the manger can be swallowed, but upon the 
ease with which they can be digested, after sustenance has entered the 
stomach. The last function is not facilitated by the provender being 
bolted ; nor does it at all depend on the shoi'tness of the period in which 
a certain quantity of victuals can be put out of sight. As to those 
stimulants which are supposed to increase the appetite and to favor the 
accumulation of fat, carters having, for ages, been condemned because 
they resorted to such nostrums, it is difiScult to understand the reason 
why these things are patronized, when openly compounded, puffed, and 
aold by advertising tradesmen. 




SECTIONS- OF THE SHOOT LEADING TO THE FEEDINQ TROUGH. 

a. The movable or sliding shutter, which, by a slanting surface made within the substance of the wall, 
leads to the corn trough that is situated on the ground. 

b. The sliding shutter let into the wall, the lower compartment of which alone admits of an upward 
motion. 

c. The corn trough and slanting surface, guarded by the shutter, as seen from aboye. 



The capacity for rest, moreover, depends upon the constitutional 
necessities of the body which is to enjoy it. The horse is a creature of 
activity. It sleeps lightly, and is iitted to eat its food as it walks. The 
quadruped requires little rest. To force those conditions, necessary for 
the repose of weary existence, upon wakeful life, such as silence, soli^ 
tude, and darkness, is merely to increase the severity of that imprison- 
ment which every English animal is born to undergo. It is torture, and 
betrays only the ignorance of those by whom such cruelty is practiced. 



312 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



The receptacle for the prepared food can, by means of a slidhig aper- 
ture inserted into the wall, be filled from without: thus the necessity for 
a groom entering the compartment of a restless or ravenous quadruped, 
whenever the animal is fed, may be avoided. Contention between the 
man and a voracious horse can be, by this arrangement, rendered an im- 
possibility ; and it is a great point in the conduct of a stable to keep the 
attendants in good humor. Ignorant servants, when enraged, are too 
much disposed to vent their bad temper upon any inferior over which 
they may be invested with authority. 




ONE OP THE BOXES IN WHICH THE FOOD IS PLACED, THE BETTER TO 8H00T IT INTO THE 
COEN TROUGH. 

Moreover, a great deal of the excitement generally displayed by par- 
ticular animals, where every prisoner can witness the distribution of the 
food to the rest, is, by the above plan, entirely abolished; and every 
observant stable attendant well knows how greatly quietude favors a 
speedy attainment of, as well as tends to, the preservation of condition. 




W^ 



A GKOOM SHOOTISQ FOOD IN THE TROUGH, WHILE STANDING OUTSIDE THE STABLE. 



By means of the box and the sliding shutter, the food may be served to 
all almost as rapidly as a man can walk. The provender is first divided 
into portions, and these are put into open boxes, which are placed upon 
a barrow. One of these boxes the man empties through each shoot, 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



313 



and then, having washed out the utensil at the pump under the covered 
way, returns it to the provender-house. This last plan, however, en- 
tails some trouble; therefore only in exceptional cases should it be 
adopted. 

As to the supply of liquid, some arrangement is also needed : the 
bottom of the water trough is level with the surrounding pavement. 
The supply pipe is commanded by a tap, and all the receptacles can be 
simultaneously filled by means of the tube that rises above the superior 
margin of the trough. Below the earth is a conduit, which conveys 
away the superabundant liquid. Into this tube or drain two smaller 
pipes empty, both of which arise from the interior of the receptacle, 
The smallest pipe reaches almost to the topmost edge of the compart- 
ment, and is simply intended to prevent the possibility of an overflow. 
The other and the larger tube is inserted into the bottom of the trough, 
and the removal of a plug, which commands the entrance, permits the 
contents of the trough to flow through this pipe into the larger conduH; 
below, which empties its contents into the main tubular drain. By 
turning on the supply, which is derived from a cistern to be hereafter 
mentioned, and by also opening the waste pipes, all the troughs can at 
any time be quickly cleansed. 



Q=^ 



n 



gii 







LONGITUDINAL SECTION OP THE WATER SUPPLY. 



The cistern is situated in the boiler-house, and is elevated several feet 
above the level of the stable. The boiler-house adjoins the boxes, and 
from the raised cistern springs the supply pipe, which is carried under 
ground through the stables. Water, however, will always rise to its 
own level ; this property convinces us that the troughs will be speedily 
filled whenever' the taps are turned. The taps b}^ which the flow is 
commanded are both placed in the first box, and by this arrangement 
the animal can receive fresh water four times daily, without fluid being 
carried to the horse. The contents of the customary pails are too fre- 
quently spilt by careless grooms. The horse naturally thrives best in a 
dry abode. Besides, the drink, as in nature, is always before the creat- 
ure ; for if presented only at stated periods, the draught may be ofi'ered 
when desire does not require liquids ; or it may be withheld when thirst 
is so powerful as to engender a disinclination for solid nourishment 



314 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE, 



Moreover, servants are not always attentive to their monotonous duties ; 
and the animal, in consequence, may be denied a necessary supply of 
fluid. 

The water troughs are, moreover, recommended by further reasons. 
Horses are blest with acute senses ; and everybody must have observed 
the animal blow upon, or rather smell, fluid before it partakes of the 
refreshment which it needs. The stable pails generally stand about; 
such things are exceedingly handy; and we need not be surprised if 
they are occasionally used for other than for cleanly purposes. The 
troughs, being flxed, are secured to one service ; the pipes emptying into 
the receptacles prevent the purity of the supply from being tampered 
with. The above advantages are also associated with the ascertained 
fact that the horse, with water constantly before it, drinks less than the 
animal to which the pail is brought only after hours of enforced absti- 
nence have generated a raging thirst. 

The roof of the proposed stable should be of the ordinary description, 
or should slope from a central ridge toward the outer walls. The cen- 
tral compartment is eighteen feet from the walls ; it is twenty -two feet 
from the level of the interior ; and its margins rest upon walls which are 
raised twelve feet hisrh. 




PLAN OF BOOF. 

H. A trap door in the roof of the ambulatory, which leads to the entrance of the loft above the 

sheltered ground. 



A plan of the contemplated roof is presented to the notice of the 
reader, who will perceive it consists of two parts. The larger portion 
is gabled at each extremity, and has a span of thirty -six feet. The 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 315 

smaller, or surrounding division, merely protects the covered ride or 
ambulatory. Where the two inclines meet, are hollows, which are tech- 
nically spoken of as "valleys." The water within these valleys is con- 
veyed away by means of four large pipes, two on either side, which are 
let into the outer wall ; while the rain, which flows down the outer 
incline of the smaller division, drains into a metallic gutter, whence it 
is carried away by fifteen smaller pipes. 

Over the center of the larger division of the roof is placed a venti- 
lator. It commences twenty-one feet from the northern extremity of the 
building, and it extends, on either side, six feet from the center. It is 
thirty feet long, and its sides are four feet high. The sides are composed 
of four-feet louvre boards, which, being set in working frames, can, by 
means of lines which reach to the ground, be opened or closed as the 
increased temperature calls for air or the cold demands protection. 

The ventilator is roofed with six-ounce glass, which is of more than 
a sufficient stoutness to resist any tempest that occurs in this climate. 
The central ridge of the ventilator rises twenty-eight feet from the pave- 
ment; and it is laterally supported by the boarded sides which have 
already been described. The roof of this part of the edifice also serves 
the purposes of windows, admitting light to the interior. 

Should any person feel disposed to complain of the probable cost 
likely to attend this last provision, let such person remember that the 
first oulay, in this particular, is likely to be the last. The material is, 
moreover, cheaper than it formerly was ; while its elevation removes it 
from all reasonable chance of breakage. The rain will wash the outer 
portion, while the position of the interior surface will prevent the accu- 
mulation of much soil ; consequently the glass will be spared all those 
accidents which too frequently disturb the peace of housekeepers during 
the cleansing of ordinary windows. 

The glass is designedly placed upon the roof, as when stable windows 
occupy the usual situations, they are generally suffered to be in so foul 
a condition as almost to counteract the purpose of their institution. 
Some of the panes are commonly broken ; and where the glass is absent, 
its place is rudely supplied by rags or by paper, while the window-ledge 
is crowded with those articles which it is desired should be ready to the 
hand, or which it is wished to store snugly away. 

When a stable is without windows, the dark house encourages a lazy 
servant. The architect's neglect also teaches the man a want of regard 
for that cleanliness which is essential to the well-being of the horse. 
With such a place, the absence of care soon becomes an unavoidable 
necessity, which the cunning of ignorance will not be slow to perceive, 
and to act upon, as being a justification of idleness. Nothing either in 



316 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

or about the stable should be sanctioned which would not accord with 
the cleanliness of a home or with the sweetness of a dairy. No dust 
should be suffered to accumulate in holes or on beams ; while the animals 
are taking their early exercise, the flooring ought to be thoroughly washed 
down every morning, and the wood-work should be scrubbed once every 
week. 

A stable, to be the abode of health, cannot command too much air, 
nor can it possibly admit too much light. The interior, however, should 
not be whitewashed in accordance with the general fashion. This glar- 
ing absence of color may, at first, look excessively clean, but it also 
exposes the smallest neglect of purity, which cannot always be present 
where animals are lodged. The cheapness of the wash may be its 
recommendation with those who are very studious of economy ; but, in 
the end, it proves a dear substitute for a better covering, as a white 
surface causes that strain upon the optic nerve which renders blindness 
a common malady among the inhabitants of snowy regions. 

Let the roof and walls be colored with a green which is made by 
mixing blue and yellow together. The light will, by the green tint, be 
partially absorbed, while the eye of the captive will be soothed by 
gazing upon the hue which constitutes the livery of nature. The pig- 
ment should not be purchased, for though the color which may be 
bought will be probably brighter than any made at home, excessive 
brightness is, in the present case, no advantage, and the more brilliant 
compound is dangerous, because it may consist of arsenic combined with 
copper. Or should a brighter color be very much desired, such can 
now be obtained, which is uncontaminated with any preparation of 
arsenic: though, probably, at a greater expense than that which is 
easily made by mixing together damp blue and powdered yellow ocher 
with size and water. 

The roof is slated ; but as this species of covering is always very hot 
in summer and equally cold in winter, the temperature of the interior 
will, in some measure, be less liable to such variations if the spaces 
between the joists are filled with solid plaster. Over the last material 
laths are nailed ; and the surface is then to be thinly ceiled. The laths 
should, however, be of a stouter kind than those which are generally 
employed ; the reason of their introduction is to anticipate the possi- 
bility of heavy lumps of plaster falling, and either injuring or frightening 
the horses. 

The reader will now accompany the author to the back of the imag- 
inary stable, which faces the north, and is divided from the last loose 
box by a stout wall. 

The northern extremity is of the same width as the other parts of the 



STABLES AS THET SHOULD BE. 



317 



building ; it extends twelve feet beyond the last loose box. Its interior 
is divided into three rooms, each twelve feet square, and all separated 
by brick walls. Entrance to these apartments is gained through three 
doors, the upper parts of Avhich, being glazed, will also serve the purposes 
of windows. 




ELEVATIOH OF THE NORTHERN END, OR BACK OP THE STABLE. 



The center division is sacred to the harness : it is kept warm by means 
which will be hereafter described. The trappings of the horse are too 
perishable and too costly to be housed within the stable. Damp, dust, 
and ammoniacal fumes are all injurious to this expensive article. Damp 
cannot but be present in the abode of animal life ; the breath, insensible 
perspiration, evaporation from the water-troughs, washing of the pave- 
ment, hoofs, etc. are the common sources of the supply. The dust is 
occasioned by the spreading of the litter, the movement of the grooms 
and of the animals, as well as by many causes of motion, which can 
never occur without sending the finer particles of decaying matter fly- 
ing from the various substances which are strewn about, Ammoniacal 
fumes are also generated by the decomposition of the equine excretions ; 
however carefully the interior may be drained, or however pure the 
atmosphere may seem to human sense, this gas must more or less exist 
in every stable. Such taints, besides damaging the substances, also 
necessitate extra cleansing; though moderate attention is preservative 
in its nature, anything approaching to excessive labor not only destroys 
the fresh aspect of the hai^ness, but is provocative of its speedy annihila- 
tion. 

Within the harness-room all the clothes (after being dried and aired) 
are to be placed, and in this apartment every piece of harness (subse- 
quent to being cleansed) should be stored ; it is there hung upon appro- 
priate fixtures and kept ready for instant use, being protected by thick 
curtains, which are made to fall over and to cover the several pieces. 

On the left of the spectator, looking toward the building, is another 
room, which acts the part of a hay-loft. Within twelve feet square is 
stored all the provender and the litter immediately required for the 



318 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

horses. The space may appear somewhat limited for the supply of six 
horses ; but enough for present use can be housed, and grooms are not 
rendered careful by the contemplation of anything like a superabundance. 
It is the filthy custom, now prevalent, to keep the food of a cleanly ani- 
mal in a loft immediately above the stalls in which the horses are con- 
fined. Thus the store-house is commonly located in the situation which 
is the most directly exposed to the volatile or the heated emanations of 
the stable. Nor is this the only source of contamination. The groom's 
living and sleeping apartment opens by a door, which is not generally 
shut, and immediately leads to the equine pantry. 

The author dare not further pursue this topic. The fancy of the 
reader, guided by the above facts, can readily picture everything that 
could be written about the fitness of provender thus housed, for pro- 
moting the health of a creature remarkable for the niceness of its habits, 
the acuteness of its senses, and the delicacy of its tastes. It may be 
forced to consume, and may, at length, morbidly " grow fond of that it 
feeds upon;" but such food cannot otherwise than undermine the health 
which sustenance should promote. 

On the opposite side to the harness-room is another compartment, 
which is used as a tool-house. There are various items employed about 
a stable which commonly litter the space inhabited by the horses, — such 
as brooms, mops, forks, pails, combs, brushes, leathers, bandages, etc. 
Everything occasionally used, or daily employed, either on the animals 
or for the vehicles, is deposited in the tool-house. For such articles 
as come under the denomination of lumber, and are not of any present 
or probable utility, another place is provided, which will be shortly 
alluded to. 

By thus allotting a store for everything, and encouraging habits of 
regularity, a considerable sum is saved, while the comfort of the grooms 
is provided for by every article being, at all times, to be readily found. 
By ordering all appliances to be carried back when no longer in use, 
nothing is left about the stable to litter the place, or be damaged by the 
animals. • 

Stable implements, in the hands of an irate groom, have proved ter- 
rible weapons of offense. A horse has been stabbed with a fork ; a blow 
given with the edge of a pail has inflicted a fearful gash. The forma- 
tion of the cranium in most existing stable attendants should suggest 
the prudence of not allowing temptation to be too convenient to such 
individuals when they become excited. 

Having inspected the northern extremity, the reader will now be kind 
enough to move, in imagination, to the front of the erection. Before 
this can be seen, the sides and northern end of the ambulatory, or cov 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



319 



ered ride, will have been observed ; in the front view, the intermediate 
posts and rails, which elsewhere define the path, are absent. The floor 
of the ambulatory being raised on all sides two feet above the surface, 
from the level of the front there extends, for twenty feet, a sloping pave- 
ment, which gradually reaches the surrounding ground. This arrange- 
ment is fully illustrated in the frontispiece to the present volume. 




ELEVATION OF THE SODTHERN END, OR FRONT OF THE STABLE. 



The stable, notwithstanding the last provision, is not supposed to be 
placed on a marsh, within a hollow, or even upon a decided level ; but, 
when a choice is possible, it should be located upon the brow of a hill. 
It is there favorably situated for the dryness of the interior as well as 
for the action of the drains. 

Having defined the position of the building, the author will now con- 
sider the last engraving, which was an imaginary front view of the sup- 
posititious building. This portion of the erection stands before the loose 
boxes, and, like the back, is also divided into three compartments. It 
is separated from the stables by a stout wall, consequently there is to 
the interior no entrance by this direction. 

The corner space to the left of the spectator, who is supposed to stand 
in front of the edifice, consists of one room, which is plastered, ceiled, 
and boarded — the dimensions being by breadth twelve, by depth eighteen 
feet. The entrance is guarded by a pair of well-made and closely-fitting 
folding doors. The interior is meant to serve as a double 
coach-house. The place is made as comfortable and is 
kept as free from drafts as its uses will permit. 

At the opposite comer exists a similar but smaller 
apartment. It possesses doors like the first; also, it is 
similarly provided with such things as ceiling, plaster, 
and boards, which are not customarily to be seen in these 
places. The room is as wide as the coach-house, but 
reaches back only ten feet ; it is meant to serve as a gig- 
house. Beneath the flooring is the coal-cellar, and which is gained by a 
trap door cut in the floor of the present apartment. Close to this trap 




PLAN OF THE COAL- 
CELLAR, WHICH 
IS IMMEDIATELY 
UNDER THE GIQ- 
HOUSE. 



320 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

an entrance is pierced in the parting wall ; and upon the last door being 
opened, as well as the trap being raised, a direct descent is formed, lead- 
ing immediately to the cellar. 

Between the gig and the coach house there must exist a clear space, 
eighteen feet deep, twelve feet wide, and of the last extent in height, 
when measured from its roof to the pavement, which is level with the 
ambulatory. The covering to this ground being flat and less lofty than 
the slates of the building, is proof that a clear space must exist above it. 
The place itself, however, contains nothing that can tempt cupidity. It 
is evidently a sheltered ground, where the carriage may be got ready, 
the harness may be cleaned, or any job be executed which might soil 
other portions of the interior. Such a spot is handy for many purposes, 
and serves as a loitering chamber for those idle gossips who delight in 
hanging about large stables. 

Against the wall of this last locality, and near to its right-hand 
corner, is a projecting block of brick-work, which measures three feet by 
two and a half feet. It is evidently neither useful nor ornamental; 
therefore the reader rightly conjectures it merely indicates the presence 
of a chimney. Close to the chimney, but nearer to the entrance, is fixed 
a pump. From a plug, ready to be inserted into the muzzle, and from 
a pipe running some feet up the wall, which it ultimately pierces, evi- 
dently the pump is occasionally used to force water into a hidden recepta- 
cle situated above the surrounding level. In the left-hand corner of this 
clear space is built a convenience for the stable servants, which should 
be kept as clean as any other part of the edifice. 

Looking once more at the front of the stable, we perceive there is a 
clock above the sheltered ground, while immediately under the clock 
something resembling the top of a door can be discerned. The roof 
of the ambulatory has also a trap let into it, which must be situated 
directly beneath this door. The trap being . raised, and the door 
opened, by means of a ladder, which should hang upon the outer side 
of the ambulatory, admittance is gained into the clock-loft: by this 
means the works of the time-piece can be regulated; while the re- 
maining space affords ample accommodation for storing, and also offers 
a spot where are housed those articles which are of no immediate 
utility. 

Between the gig-house and one of the first loose boxes there is a 
space of eight feet by twelve feet. This forms a room which has two 
entrances : one is by a door pierced through the wall of the gig-house ; 
the other is by a door, the upper part of which is glazed, and which 
opens from the ambulatory. Leading to the floor of the apartment are 
placed before each door two steps, the pavement of this room being two 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



321 



feet lower than any other level in the building. The ceiling, however, 
is ten feet removed from the floor. 

In the farthest corner, raised against the northern wall of the com- 
partment, is situated a self-acting and slow-consuming boiler. The fire 
faces toward the door, and the chimney has already been alluded to as 
built out on to the covered ground. Commencing in the farther corner, 
at the opposite extremity to that occupied by the door leading to the 
gig-house, is a staircase, which obviously conducts to an upper apart- 
ment. 



'Ci--i- 






S.=:::::::S^. 






EXiE RCIS IN C: GROUND 



i 



SI 






w I 



nt^ ■*■ . ^ .■^, 



fc:::: 



-ii:::::::::::=q;:: 



EX'E RCIiSINC 



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NPi 






GROUND PLAX. 



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73\ 
O 1 

V> i 

z! 

O i 

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C; 
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I oblong space above the loose boxes, which is indicated by dotted lines, denotes the size 
of the central ventilator. 



Above the boiler, and removed but one foot from the ceiling, is a 
cistern, which occupies the entire length of the wall, or extends for 
twelve feet: it is four feet high and three feet wide. The situation of 
the cistern explains the use of the forcing pipe, which leads upward 
from the pump and supplies the cistern as has been noticed. From this 
reservoir the boiler is replenished, and the water troughs are kept per- 
petually filled. The pipe leading to the stable quits the cistern at 
eighteen inches from the bottom; consequently the horses will want 
fluid, while the cistern holds a supply sufficient to last some time when 
only used to fill the boiler. This arrangement involves a necessary arti- 
fice. Pumping is hard work, and grooms are not famed for a love of 
mechanical labor; but these men are always clamorous at any stint 
within their dominions. They will grumble loudly if the horses lack 
water, and persecute their fellow, whose turn it may be to pump, until 
the defect is remedied ; whereas the boiler might become red hot, and an 

21 



322 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



explosion threaten to demolish the building, without one of these people 
being moved hy the likelihood of such a catastrophe. 

From the boiler proceed pipes which travel into the loose boxes, into 
the harness-room, into the coach-house, and into the gig-house. Within 
these tubes circulates warm water, the fluid being returned again to the 
boiler when its caloric has been diffused through the interior. Few 
persons imagine how important warmth is to the welfare of the horse. 
Cold immediately roughens the coat, and if not speedily counteracted, 
stiffens the limbs or depresses the spirit. Were gentlemen willing to 
maintain the temperature of their stables, that lengthy coat, which nature 
now sends as a needed protection, would not be produced : the follies 
and the barbarities of clipping and singeing might then be abolished. 
The animal which is properly lodged ^an alone attain the limit of pos- 
sible perfection. 




FLAN OF THE HOT WATER SHRTIOE. 



Impure heat generates damp : the moisture derived from such a source, 
being finely divided, is far more penetrating, far more destructive, and 
altogether more noxious, than a similar amount of water could prove. 
It destroys clothing, encourages moths, dims plated and painted orna- 
ments, rusts steel, soils varnish, rots wood and leather, — in short, there 
is nothing within the stable but suJTers more or less ; while in the animal, 
colds, coughs, and influenzas are but the intimations of its presence, the 
full effects being shown by the breaking forth of farcy and of glanders. 
Better be without horse and stable, than to be possessed of both, and 
be forced to lodge the quadruped where cold and damp prevail. 

Few gentlemen care about, or probably no gentleman has ever se- 
riously thought about, the coach-house being aired. Yet persons 
tenderly brought up, nursed in luxury, and frequently in delicate health, 
have the carriage kept near to a close stable, or housed in a building sadly 
exposed to the moist atmosphere of this northern climate. The vehicle 
is pulled out of such a place, is hastily made to wear an outward smart- 
ness, and is then whisked to the front door of the mansion. Ladies, 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 323 

habited in the thinnest of evening dresses, leave their warm apartments 
and subject their exposed beauties to the chiUing effects which must 
necessarily be present in vehicles so carelessly sheltered. Here, after 
the bustle of preparation, they remain inactive for some period. They 
are set down at a fashionable hotel, and return thence in the same con- 
veyance. The next day they naturally complain of a cold, supposed to 
have been caught at the party of last night 1 

People when seated within a carriage, the windows being up, may 
esteem themselves protected from the night air ; but they would be safer 
walking through frost or rain than traveling inactive within such a 
receptacle. Consumption is far more prevalent among carriage folk 
than it is common among races which are supposed to exist in spheres 
liable to all the ills of life. Poverty has to encounter many perils, and 
is obliged to endure many privations; but it is not exposed to those 
snares which the ignorance of wealth has invented for its own destruc- 
tion. 

Perhaps, in this country, of many classes, the richer are most troubled 
with colds, with coughs, and with diseases of the air-passages. Good 
living, no labor, and careful nursing may enable them to linger on to a 
good old age ; but comparatively few know the blessings of a vigorous 
being after the fiftieth year has passed. Warm rooms, a study of the 
weather, and ample envelopes prolong the life; but such things cannot 
restore the health. Gout, paralysis, epilepsy, with numerous brain dis- 
orders, are not common in agricultural districts, where carriages are 
scarce. Bronchitis and laryngitis are almost the property of the wealthy. 
Yet many men have paid pleasing compliments to the aristocracy con- 
cerning their longevity ; but no one has hitherto traced the cause which 
bows the youthful scion to an early grave, and makes a valetudinarian 
of the noble who should be still enjoying a vigorous middle life. Inven- 
tion has been racked to keep the feet warm when within the vehicle ; 
but it seems not to have occurred to those numerous parties whose office 
it is to minister to the luxuries of the rich, that the interior of a carriage 
might be benefited by a secure lodging, or by its being thoroughly aired. 
Such conveyances, for hours, during the most rainy nights, crowd about 
the doors of fashionable mansions, the woolen lining or the cotton cover- 
ing of the interior imbibing the malaria which resides in the heavy mid- 
night atmosphere of most large towns. Women, in the tenderest dawn 
of approaching maturity, and flushed with the pleasure of the dance, 
enter these seemingly-sheltered receptacles, where, lulled by the motion, 
they soon fall asleep. Activity is changed for instantaneous stagnation ; 
the bustle of amusement for the stillness of repose ; the heated room for 
the cold interior of a damp carriage ; and, during the drive home, every 



324 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



pore of the body being open, need we feel surprised sliould the seeds of 
any lurking evil be kindled into activity ? 

It is better to be without a carriage than to command one of the ordi- 
nary description ; one that is seldom employed, or that is kept in a moist 
shed. All which comfort requires might be attained, were damp ex- 
cluded from the coach-house, and were this portion of the building 
warmed with the same means as keeps up the temperature of the stable. 
To prove how readily and how cheaply this might be accomplished, the 
warm water pipes which enter the boxes and the harness-room also 
penetrate the coach-houses — all being supplied by a fui-nace which is 
denominated "slow-consuming." 

These boilers are of modern invention, and do not require constant 
attendance. They occupy comparatively little space ; and as they burn 
coke, of course they are maintained in operation at small expense. An 
advertisement informs the author they can 
always be seen in operation at No. 155 Cheap- 
side, being denominated "Riddle's Slow Com- 
bustion Boilers." They are merely proposed 
to the reader as the most recent improvement 
of which the author is apprised. 

Having enlarged upon the advantages to be 
secured by the existence of a boiler, the reader 
must next accompany the author up the stairs 
which lead from the boiler-house to the room 
above. Close to the northern wall, near to the center of its space, is 
seen an ample trap door. Recollection assures us it is situated imme- 
diately over the cistern ; its evident use is to permit the reservoir to be 



^ 



2 



y 

PLAN OF THE WATCHER'S-UOOM. 

T indicates the position of the 
trap, which allows of entrance to 
the interior of the cistern. 




SECTION OF THE INTERIOR. 

Snpposed to be drawn where the letters C D point to a line which runs across the ground plan. 



cleansed of the deposit which most kinds of water will soon leave be- 
hind. Additional room is secured for this small apartment by the inser- 
tion of a large dormer, or garret window, which allows the ceiling to be 



STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 



325 



even with the highest rafter of the roof There is also another and a 
smaller window, that enables the person looking through it to command 
a perfect view of the stable. 

Connected with this apartment is a bell, which sounds in an adjacent 
cottage, where the grooms reside. Should assistance be required, the 
bell, being gently touched once, intimates that the help of one groom is 
necessary. A violent ring indicates the need of all haste. Two sounds 
announce that two grooms are wanted. Thus the number of men is 
always told by the number of sounds ; and the occasion for quickness 
is suggested by the violence with which the wire is moved. A number 
of loud sounds, rapidly succeeding one another, is a signal to come 
immediately, and to bring such extra assistance as can be readily pro- 
cured. 

Another advantage is secured by a man being awake, and upon the 
premises. The present necessity for cramming the entire quantity of 
food down the animal by a particular hour is thereby avoided. The 
natural habits of the horse can be attended to, the animal not being left 
twelve long hours alone and without employment. The five feeds might 
be better distributed if given at six in the morning, twelve in the day, 
five in the afternoon, ten at night, and two o'clock on the following 
morning. If this plan of feeding were tried and the fodder properly 
prepared before being placed in the manger, the animal would enjoy its 
provision more, and fewer complaints would be heard about the fasti- 
dious appetite of a creature whose natural propensities are, by present 
customs, openly violated. 




THE ELEVATION OF THE EASTERN SIDE OP THE CONTEMPLATED STABLE. 



The night watcher of a stable has more serious duties to perform 
than most people associate with a comfortable, although a himible 
room. The groom, having finished the day's work, ascends to the 
apartment, and remains there until his fellows return on the following 
morning, or unless some business occasions him to quit it. There are 
light, fire, table, chair, couch, and rugs provided. The man is not for- 
bidden to sleep ; but while he rests, the window which overlooks the 



326 STABLES AS THEY SHOULD BE. 

stable should remain open, so that any noise within the boxes may dis- 
turb his repose. The watcher is expected to wear his clothes through 
the night, so that should an accident, at any time, require his aid, he 
may always be prepared to afford assistance ; or should any horse be 
returned, after the other grooms have left for the night, he may be ready 
to receive, to dress, and to feed the animal. 

The architectural designs which embelKsh this part were drawn by 
the author's brother, Mr. Julius Mayhew, who, under the inventor's 
direction, will be happy to employ his talent in erecting the supposed 
stable for any gentleman intending to follow out the plans which have 
been exhibited. 



CHAPTER X. 

GROOMS — THEIR PREJUDICES, THEIR INJURIES, AND THEIR DUTIES. 

Grooms, if generally tlie most loose of servants, are, by the middle 
classes, morally subjected to the worst treatment of all the domestics. 
In the larger number of the purely "grew^eeZ" families, they occupy an 
intermediate and an uncertain position. Few of them live in the house ; 
but all of this order have household duties to perform. Very many 
have to clean the family boots ; to rub up the mahogany ; to polish the 
plate ; to wait at table ; and to fill those multifarious offices which every 
woman is certain no female ought to discharge "while there is a great 
hulking fellow on the establishment." 

The author does not altogether dissent from the somewhat coarse con- 
viction just recorded. Where a single conveyance and one horse are 
kept, folly alone could pretend that these can, or should, occupy the 
entire services of a male retainer. It is far from unreasonable to im- 
pose other duties upon the man : only the horse and the stable should 
be allowed to have the foremost claim upon the groom's attention. 
Whereas, at the present time, the animal is made secondary by the 
authority of the mistress; its attendant is too often so crippled with 
multifarious employments that it is at chance times only an opportunity 
is found to discharge the obligations of the domestic's nominal office. 

In suburban villas, where only one man is kept, the groom often is 
expected, over and above the foregoing list of duties, to keep a garden 
in order. To be sure, the vast majority of genteel grooms understand 
quite as much about horticulture as they really comprehend concerning 
horses. If asked for their qualifications with respect to the latter, they 
assume a look half insolent and half indignant before answering, " They 
have lived 'mong osses all their lifes." The author was born in a house, 
and he has lived among houses till his hair is white, and age has more 
than began to tell upon his activity ; but he does not, therefore, esteem 
himself qualified to comprehend all about those structures. 

Still the suburban groom can dig in manure ; can dibble holes into soft 
ground, and can drop seeds therein ; can stick peas, and can top beans ; 

(327) 



328 GROOMS. 

can tie up flowers, and can gather in fruit; so, to the height of his mis- 
tress's requirements, he is better than a person of loftier qualiiications. 
If any garden produce should thrive, it is hailed as the evidence of 
Thomas's ability ; should aught totally fail, the loss is attributed to the 
influence o-f the season. Thus credited for the good and shielded from 
the bad, it is scarcely cause for wonder should Thomas increase in fame, 
or soon grow to regard himself as perfection in the gardening capacity. 

To recompense for the extra toil of servitude, the country groom 
takes his place at the kitchen table, and is thereby saved from many 
temptations to which ,the London outdoor domestic is necessarily ex- 
posed. He can occupy a chair before the kitchen fire when the day 
and the day's work has ended. In such places there is never any lack 
of conversation, while the conduct of master, of missus, and of the 
family is open to criticism. But the town groom knows nothing of such 
enjoyments ; he may leave his horse, during the day, for the performance 
of domestic duties, but, after dark, it is essential to his master's peace of 
mind that the man should be thought located in the stable. 

Within the last-named place he has a solitary room allotted him, 
which lies immediately under the slates and directly over the coach- 
house. If he has a family, his wife and children have to share the one 
small apartment, within which has to be performed the sleeping, the 
cooking, the eating, and the washing of the home clothes, to which, very 
frequently, is added the soiled linen of some patronizing neighbor. 
Within such a spacious residence^ devoted to so many and to such oppo- 
site uses, a human being is expec^d to live and to thrive ; to be healthy 
and to regard the place as his haven of domestic felicity. 

Scientific investigation, however, has demonstrated that a London 
mews affords the most unwholesome abiding-place which is to be found 
within the limits of the metropolis. With only slates above to ward off 
the summer's parching heat, or to keep out the winter's biting frost ; 
with the huge lungs below constantly vitiating the atmosphere of the 
place, it is no reason for surprise if the woman soon becomes a quarrel- 
some hag; if the children grow "fractious" imps; while the man learns 
to shun his home, and to practice arts which are needed to supply his 
extravagances elsewhere. 

Undermine the bodily health, and assuredly the moral principle has a 
tendency to give way. Squalor is not friendly to the maintenance of 
probity. This fact is illustrated by nations as well as exemplified among 
individuals. The most necessitous are, as a tribe, always the most dis- 
honest; but healthy poverty does not always indicate the keenest 
craving. The millionaire may be more greedy than the pauper. Yet 
when want arises from a loss of health, the desires generally increase as 



GROOMS. 329 

the powers of enjoyment diminish. The sicklier the neighborhood, the 
more criminal are its inhabitants. Among a people emaciated by dis- 
ease, the exemplification of virtue is an exception, as witness the fearful 
sins which invariably accompany the visitation of devastating epidemics. 

When in town, the one groom's duties necessitate he should be up 
before the family have opened their eyes ; his functions are nearly dis- 
charged when master's dinner table has been cleared. The morning he 
is supposed to occupy by attending to the horse. The evening he is 
imagined to pass in the bosom of his family, or, if single, in solitude ; 
but always in his home over the stable. Before his employer's break- 
fast, and subsequently to the " Guv'nor's " evening repast, the man is, 
by an amiable fiction, conjectured to be laudably engaged ; although, at 
such times, a sickly being and a disordered mind is freed from the re- 
straint of authority. 

The homes of too many London stable-men are such abodes as no life 
should reside in. The place may be crowded with the elements of hap- 
piness: in it may exist wife and children; but to it can be attached none 
of those characteristics which should hallow domesticity. A noxious 
vapor at all times prevails; this undermines the health, and gradually 
saps the soul's integrity. The impurity of the atmosphere induces a 
languor which almost compels a resort to stimulants. The man's even- 
ings are his leisure hours ; but what choice is there to him between the 
blazing fire, with the cheerful society of the tap-room, and the inadequacy 
of accommodation or the " fractiousness " of debility, that are the chief 
attractions of the room which is over the stable ? 

A genteel groom's wages range from one pound one to one pound ten 
shiUings per week, together with outside clothes and an unwholesome 
lodging. The better class give the higher sum ; but the vast majority 
of London grooms do not receive much more than the first amount. 
How, then, on so small a wage, can the men afford to visit so frequently 
the bar round the corner ? In the first place, job masters, or men who 
let out carriage horses, retain persons whose duty it is to call round at 
the stable and see how the creatures are progressing. These men spend 
large sums in "treating" grooms; where an animal of a known delicate 
constitution is placed, their calls are proportionately numerous, and their 
"tips" are uniformly liberal. 

A tradesman cannot look into a stable without inviting the presiding 
ruler of the place to take a "parting cup," There is no class of mascu- 
line servants who levy " black mail " so universally and so unmercifully 
as they of the London mews. The groom, therefore, does not pay for 
half of the much he swallows ; and to liquidate his disbursements, he 
collects an ample revenue. Five per cent, over and above the perpetual 



330 GROOMS. 

"treats" and gratuities, is the general tax on all the bills which his 
master pays. 

Of the oats, many grooms claim a partner's share. On the services, 
all exert the larger right. Nay, even fashion, perverse and capricious to 
other people, seems to pander to the wishes of the stable. The animal 
delights in a flowing mane and tail, which not only beautify the creat- 
ure, but serve to guide the motions, to fan the body, and to flap away 
the insects. The groom, however, regards the long horse hair as his 
property, and, to aid his views, there exists an instrument the use of 
which is to extract the equine adornment without exciting suspicion. 
Few gentlemen's horses appear with the mane or the tail in a natural 
condition, and genteel prejudice sneers at the profusion on which tribute 
has not been levied. Thus, while the quadruped lives, it breathes to 
enrich him who is engaged to tend the animal. 

Nothing can enter the door on which an acknowledgment is not 
demanded, while nothing can leave the premises which is not regarded 
as the groom's lawful perquisite. The first maxim commences with the 
newly -purchased animal; the last terminated with the carcass which 
was drawn out of the stable. 

For the servant's shortcoming, however, the master is to blame. It 
is neither morally right nor socially just to debase a man by exposing 
him, for the sake of convenience, to the certainty of enervation, while 
you place him in a situation of trust and of authority. Perhaps few of 
human kind are fitted to uprightly support the double responsibility; 
but, certainly, he commits a sin who invests another with such powers 
and then turns poor frailty into an exhausting atmosphere, removed from 
the possibility of supervision, and exposed to those temptations, while 
the employer's act has deprived his menial of the energy requisite for 
successful resistance. 

The groom, for the convenience of the master, is forced to stand where 
man is not fit to be placed. He is despotic over the lives which cannot 
complain; he is the occupant of a home which is incompatible with 
health; he has property at his command, which it is impossible to 
check; with much idle time, he is surrounded by the examples and by 
the temptations of vice. His wages, however, are barely suificient for 
the most rigid economy. The money he receives is certainly not fitted 
to satisfy the demands of the smallest extravagance. What justification 
can be urged in behalf of that educated gentleman who bribes an uned- 
ucated dependent to occupy so corruptive a position ? 

From the disinclination of employers to adequately discharge their 
duties, assuredly spring the many vices which beset the majority of 
London stables. In the country, where things are managed with less 



GROOMS. 331 

of systematic formality, and where the groom lives with the servants of 
the family, the same corruptions do not prevail. Tradesmen, away 
from the metropolis, give Christmas-boxes ; they hkewise occasionally 
"treat" and "tip," but the custom has not degenerated into a tax; 
neither is the ruler of the stable paid five per cent, on the master's bills ; 
nor is the man thus bribed to promote that extravagance which is detri- 
mental to the interest he has engaged himself to serve. 

These things cannot be amended with the present race of grooms. 
They are corrupt beyond all hope of reformation. With new material, 
a new system must be established. The servant should be accommo- 
dated with a wholesome home. Such might be cheaply built, but it 
ought not to be crowded into a corner of the horse's dwelling. It should 
be distinct from the stables, and ought to possess two windows, from 
which the horses might be overlooked. One should open from the 
sitting-room, the other from the sleeping-chamber. The wages at 
present paid may be ample for one man's food, but no money can satisfy 
the unhealthy gnawing generated by a contaminated domicile. To 
permit a human being to marry, when his earnings will not support 
a family ; then to thrust wife and children into one small room, the air 
of which is vitiated, naturally leads to the want of integrity, which, 
properly regarded, is in its effects no more than the consequences of 
injustice rebounding to strike the wrong-doer. 

Against the proposal to erect distinct apartments will certainly be 
urged the expense which must be necessitated by such a measure. But 
when the year's accounts are settled, it might be found less costly to 
liquidate all needful charges than to feed the continual drain which the 
present custom creates. However, the wealthy have no right to urge 
their parsimony when the health of an inferior should be the sole con- 
sideration ; but it ought to be recognized as a religious obligation to 
sacrifice personal gratifications rather than to purchase our pleasures by 
the corruption of those whom Providence has permitted to exist as our 
dependents. The police, who are empowered to enforce the observance 
of certain decencies in the lodging-houses of the poor, should also be 
authorized to watch, that the regulations necessary to the conservancy 
ot" health and life are not violated to propitiate the parsimony of the 
wealthy. 

The last word of the foregoing sentence is employed to denote that 
species of possession which should appertain to all of those who, accord- 
ing to the well-known definition of the witness on Thurtell's trial, merit 
the term of "respectable." To those establishments in which only one 
servant (generally without the assistance even of a stable-boy) is re- 
tained, the following remarks are chiefly directed. Where numerous 



332 



GROOMS. 



domestics are retained, over whom a stud groom or even a coachman 
presides, no specific rules are required to be laid down. 

The larger stables are, for the most part, variously but admirably 
ordered. These sin only inasmuch as he who governs shares the igno- 
rance which pervades all modern society. But the animal suffers from 
other causes in the simply genteel establishment. Two grooms can 
better attend even to six horses than one man can do all which a single 
quadruped requires. For instance: how can any domestic lead the 
creature to exercise, and, while he is thus employed, also freshen up the 
stable during the period of his absence ? 

Every groom should be allowed a lad, for the above reason. Where 
only one animal is kept, few metropolitan stables are fit abodes for either 
man or horse. These are both retained for the labor each can perform ; 
but, to exert this labor, a healthy residence is in both cases of equal 
importance. To show the reformation which in the great majority of 
London stables is imperative, the next engraving is introduced ; and it 
is seriously recommended to the consideration of the public, not as a 
luxury or as an appendage to affluence, but as an alteration which would 
be favorable to absolute economy. 




A MODERN STABLE, AS IT MAT BE ADAPTED AND IMPROVED. 



The above plan supposes the entire space occupied by a London 
stable to be appropriated to its legitimate purpose. "Within the build- 
ing no "groom's room" is crowded. The interior of the horse's apart- 
ment extends " clear up " to the roof Such a height may, when con- 
trasted with existing places of a like description, appear enormous; but 
before that opinion can be established, those purposes to which the 
house is devoted have to be considered. 

A stable into which four inconvenient stalls were crowded may be 
converted into a receptacle for three small loose boxes, each measuring 



GROOMS. 333 

six feet eight inches broad by sixteen feet deep. The divisions are 
similar to those alluded to in the previous chapter; but the first two 
boxes must be passed through before the third can be reached. There 
is no gangway, and the door opens into the first compartment, through 
one box being the only passage to the others. This is inconvenient; 
for it necessitates that when a quadruped has to be taken out, all the 
horses between it and the entrance should be previously haltered and 
fastened up to the farthest side, or to where the manger was originally 
erected. 

The hay -loft, instead of being directly over the horses, is separated 
from the animals by a stout wall. This arrangement obliges that the 
provender should be fetched as it is wanted ; but it also provides that 
the food shall not be contaminated before it is offered to the quadrupeds. 
The vehicle is likewise removed from the possibility of soil; and the 
coach-house contains a stove, of the kind called "slow-consuming." 
Connected with this fire is a boiler, from which hot water pipes diverge. 
Above the coach-house, the space is divided into hay-loft, etc. 

The annual cost of a coach-house and stable in the best parts of Lon- 
don is thirty pounds. A house of the proposed dimensions, where the 
rent is highest, would necessitate an annual outlay of fifteen pounds 
extra. Such an amount might be easily saved from the present expendi- 
ture, while the horses would be better lodged, and last the longer ; the 
carriage would be better housed, and not require renovation so fre- 
quently ; the food would be kept sweeter, and not be as often wasted as 
eaten; the servant would possess a healthy home; while the master 
could not but gain, by the better strength and amended feelings of his 
dependents. 

But before such changes can be witnessed, gentlemen must have re- 
leased their minds from the fetters of fashionable custom. The prevail- 
ing folly, which insistfe that every groom shall be a stunted affectation, 
is a stain upon the boasted enlightenment of the present period. It is 
true, a light weight is essential in a jockey ; but men of station should 
be above aping those necessities which the trainer laments being obliged 
to obey. 

To ride, is the last qualification required in most grooms, and it is one 
which few of the existing deformities can properly perform. The horses, 
when exercised, should not be mounted, but should be led ; and height 
is an advantage when this is being performed. The animals are like- 
wise more readily dressed by a tall man ; for many a quadruped is ren- 
dered restive by the mingled fuss and spite vented on their charges by 
the modern diminutives. 

There is, however, one groom, whose weight should not much exceed 



aa* GROOMS. 

eleven stone. This is the pad groom, whose peculiar duty it is to ride 
after his master or mistress, when either indulge in equestrian exercise. 
The man, being a personal servant, should be active and attentive. 
When on the road, he should follow his employer at such a distance as 
will prevent him from overhearing conversation, and will render it im- 
possible for the horse he is riding to challenge or to excite the animal 
on which his superior is mounted. At the same time, he should be suffi- 
ciently close to observe the slightest action of his employer; and, so 
soon as his master shall stop, he ought to appear on the off side, ready 
to hold the rein while the gentleman dismounts. 

The nag is, however, at the present time more the property of the 
servant than of the proprietor. It is more ridden by other persons than 
by its nominal master. The groom rides to exercise ; the smith rides from 
the forge. When a message is sent, the servant never walks ; if a parcel 
has to be fetched or left, the man always carries it upon another's back 
than his own. In short, the steed has to work whenever the hired 
domestic is employed beyond the walls of the mansion. 

Now, to work the master's horses is no part of his duties who is en- 
gaged to attend upon the inhabitants of his master's stables. It may 
be more pleasant to ride ; but which, does he imagine, would prove most 
advantageous to the animals? To him whose province it is to "look 
after " the quadrupeds, their welfare ought to be more studied than his 
personal convenience. There is an accepted maxim about "serving two 
masters;" but this is that which all horses have to do; and very often 
the tyrant of the mews is far more exacting than the ruler of the man- 
sion. People, before they complain of the expense attendant upon keep- 
ing a small stud, should ponder over the foregoing facts ; for where two 
duties have to be simultaneously discharged, we may anticipate that 
health will occasionally fail, and "accidents" will frequently occur. 

Gentlemen are not safe, if they mount horses which have not received 
the morning's exercise. Grooms are seldom to be absolutely depended 
on for the invariable discharge of early duties. Hence arise the majority 
of those terrible misfortunes which condemn wide circles to adopt sad- 
colored garments. When the master is thrown, the servant's neglect is 
too frequently the cause of the supposed "accident." Therefore, where 
saddles are much employed, the stable attendant should never be free 
from all supervision during the performance of his essential duties. 

After long confinement within a tainted atmosphere, the pure air 
seems to intoxicate the inhabitants of the stable. People, subsequent to 
severe sickness, generally suffer when first leaving the house. But a 
human chamber is kept ventilated, and the patient commonly sits near 
an open window before venturing abroad. The equine apartment is 



GROOMS. 335 

always foul, and during the night it generally reeks with impurity. The 
food and the drink of the animal are simple in the extreme. Its limbs, 
while in the stall, are motionless. No wonder, therefore, if sudden ac- 
tion and the inhalation of untainted atmosphere act in a strange manner 
upon a sensitive and delicately-organized body. The creature's senses 
are not to be measured by human perceptions ; neither are its acts to be 
accounted for by appealing to the conduct of its master. We must 
reason temperately, and accept the mute behavior as strongest evidence. 
Then, all horsemen must have remarked the excited caperings which 
signalize the first release of the horse from its unwholesome abode. 
During such a time the saddle cannot be a desirable seat ; neither can 
we assert how soon the quadruped is free from its excitement, nor what 
circumstances may induce a renewal of the extraordinary exhibition. 

The next thing to be desired is, that those persons who do not employ 
a stud groom should find some one to represent this important func- 
tionary. Where groom and coachman are kept, it is easy to invest the 
coachman with authority ; for the servant is always a severe task-master 
to his fellow. When groom and coachman are united, the proprietor 
should pay more than visits of ceremony, at regular periods, to his 
stables. 

Grooms, however, dislike to be overlooked. They constantly assert a 
stable is "no place for a gentleman;" and aping outward respect, they 
manage to render this opinion influential. When the proprietor appears 
in the stable, all work ceases. The groom stiffens with the most rigid 
propriety. Under a pretense of duty, he dogs his employer's steps. 
He answers in monosyllables, and in a low voice. The face grows un- 
pleasant in the blankness of its expression. He will not talk; he will 
not work ; he will only watch his master, with an air partly of offense, 
partly of mystery. The gentleman soon grows uncomfortable ; and there 
is small cause for surprise should the proprietor, having been thus 
treated, be in no hurry to repeat the visit. 

The stable is then relinquished entirely to the servant. There, the 
man fears no eye observing his actions ; and he knows there is no tongue 
to report his behavior. Before an uneducated individual is thus left in 
unchecked authority, it were well to think if his surroundings are of a 
character which neither passion nor malice could convert into instruments 
of danger. 

The attention should be seriously given to the banishment of steel 
from every tool employed about the horses. Those who are not in the 
secrets of such matters cannot imagine how many injuries, which are 
reported and accepted as " accidents," are really wounds willfully inflicted 
during moments of irritation. 



336 



GROOMS. 



An instant's reflection will, however, convince the least credulous 
reader of the feasibility of the above assertion. Stable-men usually 
pass their evenings at an adjacent public house. After a night's en- 
deavor to sleep in a foul atmosphere, their duties oblige them to be early 
risers. They enter the stable, having their stomach upset ; with their 
temper consequently unhinged, and in no mood to attend upon the wants 
of an unsympathetic animal. At such moments the iron tools must be 
employed, and the lightest of these things can inflict the most terrible 
injuries. The stable fork is commonly spoken of as a dangerous weapon. 
The man may be removing the bed with this implement, when he mut- 
ters, "kim ovare." The horse does not hear or does not understand the 
command. The order is shouted out in the topmost key of an angry 
voice. Fear incapacitates the quadruped for obedience. The arm is 
raised before the creature has recovered ; and a blow from a pitchfork will 
leave a fearful mark behind. 




'KIM OVARE. 



To avoid such "accidents," banish the use of metal from within the 
stable. All requisite implements can be made of horn or of hard wood. 



GROOMS. 33T 

To scrape the perspiration off the body of a horse, a slip of whalebone 
will leave nothing to be desired; to toss up or to carry away thirty-six 
pounds of loose straw, tough wood may answer as well as iron. The 
curry-comb will scrape enough, if composed of horn ; although, save in 
exceptional cases, and under veterinary advice, such an implement of 
torture is better abolished, for it generates the scurf which its constant 
use is thought to remove. The man can work longer and accomplish 
more with a hair cloth, a brush, and a whisk. Should the skin appear 
dry or scurfy, forbear to irritate it with the curry-comb. Moisten it the 
night before with the following preparation; on the ensuing morning 
dress the animal with the utmost gentleness. 

Preparation for a scurfy skin. 

Animal glycerin One part. 

Rose-water Two parts. 

Mix. 

A small teacupful of the above should be sufficient to moisten the 
entire body of a horse; for the skin, not the hair, requires merely to be 
lightly damped with a small bit of sponge. To execute this properly 
occupies considerable time ; it cannot be quickly performed. But if this 
is done occasionally, the integument will continue soft; for the effect of 
glycerin, as a wash for the skin, cannot possibly be too much confided 
in. Should the smell of the animal glycerin prove offensive, the prop- 
erty may be overcome by adding to the mixture a sufficiency of any 
cheap essential oil. To harness horses, however, animal glycerin is not 
so powerful as to necessitate any corrective. 

A further benefit will be secured by the banishment of the curry-comb. 
Those noisy and unseemly contests, which are provoked every morning, 
will no longer startle a quiet neighborhood. The shouts of " stand still," 
and the blows with which these orders were accompanied, will cease to 
be heard ; for the writhing which elicited both will terminate when the 
curry-comb has been abolished. Grooms, by the gentler behavior of 
their charges, may be tutored to abandon those very emphatic expletives 
that sound oddly when addressed to the animal, which is the most 
patient and the most obedient of all creation. Mild words commonly 
accompany gentle actions ; under better regulations, man and horse may 
learn ultimately to cherish for each other those emotions natural to two 
living beings that are thrown so much into each other's society. 

Tying the horse's head high up to a wall — putting on the necklace — 
using the muzzle, or employing the arm-strap — are but artifices which 
enable a groom to employ a needless instrument with unnecessary se 

22 



338 GROOMS. 

verity. Animals with tender hides suffer so acutely under this affliction, 
that lamentable consequences have been caused by that desperation 
which the torture has induced. It is better to adopt gentler means, 
when these are more certain and more effectual than any restraints can 
possibly be rendered, while the curry-comb is retained. 

Having so far changed the habits of the stable as to prevent the 
groom from riding on all occasions — having brought the man to believe 
that, where strength is not required, articles made of wood or of horn 
are as useful as tools manufactured out of iron — having convinced him 
of the folly exemplified by the employment of such very energetic lan- 
guage to an animal, — there yet remains something more to be accom- 
plished. Small respect is evinced by sullen demeanor. The man, having 
acknowledged the entrance of his master, should proceed with his ordi- 
nary work, until the voice of his employer calls his attention from it, or 
desires his presence elsewhere. This the domestic ought to comprehend 
and to acknowledge before he is required to exemplify it by his actions. 
The servant must be also taught to remove pails, cloths, or instruments 
from the stable the instant such articles are no longer employed. Thus 
those unsightly objects, as stopping-box, dirty rags, soiled bottles, forks, 
brooms, sticks, etc., which now usually litter such places, would be 
totally banished into obscurity. 

These things should never be suffered to remain after they are no 
longer needed. Grooms often acquire a habit of striking their charges ; 
this practice is likely to be encouraged by the means of chastisement 
being always ready to the hand. Insist that the interior be kept in- 
variably clear; that all tools are brought into the stable as required, 
and are carried thence when no longer employed. Jars, bottles, etc. 
should never be allowed to accumulate, under a pretense that such 
refuse may prove useful on some future occasion, or may hereafter be 
sold as a legitimate perquisite. Forbid the insertion of nails or hooks 
into the walls ; for such projections have occasioned fearful rents in a 
horse's body; and so have the sharp edges formed by the building, 
whether these are of brick, of wood, or of iron: all should be very 
carefully rounded, for this last precaution being unheeded has induced 
lamentable injuries. 

In a properly-regulated stable, water should be abundant, and ought 
to be freely employed. Grooms dislike this. At present, even books 
are written which, as an innovation upon confirmed habits, seriously 
propose that the flooring of stalls should be washed once a week. The 
author recommends that the loose boxes should be thoroughly flooded 
every morning, and that, while this is done, they also should be well 
scrubbed with a stiff birch broom. The pavement ought to look clean, 



GROOMS. 339 

and the stable should he perfectly free from any taint. Many ignorant 
or idle persons assert dirt to be preservative of health ; but if the reader 
will experiment with a little cleanliness, he may afterward be trusted to 
decide upon the merit of the opposite extreme. "While the grooms are 
walking the horses the stable-boys can cleanse the boxes, and these 
places being warmed during winter, there is no peril to be anticipated 
from excess of moisture, though inconvenience may be experienced in 
consequence of its deficiency. 

The stable thus regulated is not only a safer, but it is a more health- 
ful abode for horses. Another advantage is gained by keeping the 
building perfectly vacant — no excuse is then ever ready to justify the 
intrusion of idlers. When groom and horses reside under one roof, 
such an order cannot be insisted upon ; but when each has a distinct 
home, the man's visitors evidently have no business within the master's 
oflBces. Vulgar people are apt to become excited by the presence of 
numbers, and to illustrate their dexterity upon the quadrupeds, which 
cannot comprehend that action to be intended for play, when their part 
in the amusement generally calls on the creatures to endure. Moreover, 
grooms are fond of dogs ; some of their pets are remarkable for ferocity. 
Nor does the educated savagery of the canine species form the only 
objection to their presence ; these animals have a tendency to exhibit a 
fearful disease, to inoculation from which the horse is very susceptible. 

Cleanliness, quietude, and regularity should prevail in every stable. 
Where one horse alone is kept, the groom should be placed over a lad; 
for a stable cannot be well managed by one pair of hands. The door 
of the building should be unlocked punctually at six o'clock. The horse 
should be inspected, to see that no mishap has occurred during the night ; 
after which the animal, at j^resent, receives the earliest feed of corn, mixed 
with two pounds of clover hay cut into chaff, the whole having been 
steamed or macerated. While this is being consumed, the night clothes 
should be removed ; the unsoiled straw divided from the soiled bedding ; 
the clothes should be spread out to become perfectly dry ; the exposed 
body of the animal should be again thoroughly inspected; stopping 
(when used) taken from the feet ; the water renewed ; the feet looked 
to; the clinches of the nails, which fasten on the shoes, should be felt; 
the unsoiled bed heaped into one corner of the box ; the day clothes put 
on ; and those things generally attended to which are required to give 
the place a smart appearance. 

Seven o^clock. — The day clothes are either allowed to remain, are 
changed for lighter sheets, or are entirely removed, according to the 
weather: the horse is bridled, and the animal is led forth to one hour's 
exercise ; the helper or the stable-boy throws every outlet open ; puts 



340 GROOMS. 

the bedding out to diy, if requisite ; washes the pavement ; sluices the 
'Irains ; cleans the manger ; allows a full stream of water to flow through 
the troughs ; getting the building sweet and ready by the expiration of 
the hour. 

This morning exercise is, in London, often neglected ; but it should 
always be strictly insisted on. Perhaps it were better, were the animals 
at once conducted from the place in which they slept and led through 
the air upon the first opening of the doors : after which they could return 
to sweetened apartments, with bodies refreshed and appetites stimulated 
by the morning breeze. Moreover, it is better to divide the exercise and 
the work by as long a period as possible ; and the food must be more 
nutritive and wholesome when eaten in a clean apartment, than when 
devoured in a chamber reeking with the fumes of twelve hours' imprison- 
ment. No fear need be felt concerning the delay, as the exercise is no 
more to the horse than is the early walk before breakfast, in which so 
many gentlemen indulge with advantage to their constitutions. During 
winter, however, the morning exercise is often delayed ; and then is sel- 
dom given. The only legitimate excuse for the absence of such a neces- 
sity to health, is the presence of a severe frost. Otherwise, Avinter and 
summer, the early walk should never be neglected. 

Eight o^clock. — The horse is brought in, and, being stripped, the 
grooming commences before the body cools. This is performed outside 
in very warm weather, but within the stable when the day is either 
cold or wet. Hair cloth, dandy and water-brush ; hay wisp, sponge 
and comb, are only employed in this operation. The hair cloth is used, 
save in cases of absolute necessity, instead of a curry-comb : the other 
things are employed after the manner in which grooms are accustomed 
to use them. 

The groom should always cleanse the body in the line of the hair. 
To ruffle this, causes annoyance to the animal, and interferes with the 
beauty of its appearance. The daily renovation ought to commence 
with the head. On this part more time and patience should be lavished 
than is usually bestowed. The groom is not perfect in his duty until 
his office affords pleasure to the creature on which he operates. The 
ears are smoothed and made glossy with the hand. Then the fore quar- 
ters are dressed; afterward the animal is turned round, and the other 
parts are attended to : but one agent is always fully used before the next 
is introduced. The openings having been sponged and the long hair 
combed, the toilet is then finished. This being done, the groom sees 
about his harness, etc., till nine o'clock. 

To ascertain whether an animal has been properly groomed, inspect 
the roots of the mane. Should scurf appear, set the servant to remove 



GROOMS. 341 

it. Also finger the body, which should communicate no thick and 
greasy soil to the hand. Grooms will assert it is impossible to prevent 
these effects ; but if their labor cannot clear the coat, they must be either 
very ignorant or very idle. It is useless to dispute with an inferior. 
Tell him you insist upon your desires being accomplished, and you will 
only retain the man who can effect it. 

Nine o^clock. — The horse receives another feed, consisting of two and 
a half pounds of soaked peas or of soaked tares, one quart of soaked 
and crushed barley, with three pounds of clover hay cut into chaff, and 
also steeped : all soil is removed from the boxes ; the groom then returns 
to finish his harness. Every piece is unbuckled and cleaned separately, 
and all metal articles polished, after the leather has been overlooked and 
renovated. 

Ten o^clock. — The man goes to the house for the day's orders : these 
obtained, he returns to the stable ; he finishes the harness and he cleans 
the carriage. The cushions should be removed and daily aired : in hot 
wfiather, in the sun ; in wet or during cold seasons, at the fire. This is 
done before the vehicle itself is attended to. 

Twelve o'clock. — The horse has another feed, composed of half a 
gallon of crushed and macerated oats, with two pounds of properly-pre- 
pared pea or bean chaff. 

Two o'' clock. — The horse, when not required by the master or mis- 
tress, is led out for two hours' exercise. When its services are needed, 
the eyes, nostrils, etc. are sponged over; the mane and tail combed out; 
the coat is dried and smoothed; the exterior of the hoofs slightly gly- 
cerined ; the feet and shoes specially noticed ; then the saddle or harness 
is put on, and the animal is walked, not hurried, round to the front 
door. If the quadruped's services are not required, the last directions 
are unheeded. 

Four or Jive o'clock. — When the horse returns, either from abroad or 
from exercise, the bed should have been littered down, and the body 
should be slightly dressed ; the night clothes should be ready ; the animal 
is fed with four pounds of Egyptian beans, soaked and mingled with 
half a peck of upland hay chaff. When the horse is out late, the groom 
and the stable-boy should be up to receive it. Further instructions will, 
hereafter, be given concerning the treatment of the animal's possible 
condition when it is brought home at unseasonable hours. 

At dusk. — A small light is ignited, and placed in a lantern. 

At ten o^clock. — The horse receives the last meal, which consists of 
the same ingredients as the twelve o'clock feed. 

In the foregoing directions, only those things have been mentioned 
which require to be executed with regularity. Many small acts are, of 



342 GROOMS. 

course, not named. These are done between the more important duties. 
But, as a general division of the labor, a good groom should always 
make the horse the primary consideration. Thus, the ibre part of the 
day is entirely spent upon the quadruped, upon the harness, and upon 
the vehicle ; while the afternoon (where such an arrangement be pos- 
sible) is devoted to the employer or to the stable, and to those small 
matters which always demand attention. 

A better division of the feeding is, to withhold the nine o'clock por- 
tion, and to give it at two o'clock in the early morning; for as the horse 
delights in comparative darkness, and is by nature formed to be hungry 
and active after sunset, man certainly would gain by following the plan 
which best accords with the animal's instinct. Thus horses, being ob- 
served when in the field, will invariably be seen either resting or sleeping 
during the hot hours of the afternoon. The cool of the evening, conse- 
quently, would be a better time for enforcing exercise than the period 
when, according to existing customs, it is generally administered. In 
private establishments, however, many of the latter proposals would be 
attended with inconvenience ; but the author can imagine no household 
in which the ten o'clock feed and the evening exercise might not be 
undertaken, and, in several public companies, everything here suggested 
could be accomplished. The morning's exercise should likewise be given 
before the day becomes hot or the light is fully confirmed. Then the 
quadruped is braced by the spirit of the hour, not rendered miserable by 
the heat and annoyed by the stings of innumerable insects. 

The only peculiarity in the above regulations consists in the length of 
time over which the feeding and the exercising are distributed. The 
ordinary day of most stables lasts only eleven or twelve hours. The 
author makes the period to extend over sixteen hours. His reasons for 
so doing are twofold : in the first place, the horse is by nature formed 
to enjoy the night much more than it is made capable of roaming during 
the day; in the second place, the author never dissected the carcass of 
an aged animal without finding the capacity of the stomach morbidly 
enlarged, and the walls of the viscus rendered dangerously thin by re- 
peated distention. The manner in which the small digestive bag of the 
quadruped must be overloaded, by the usual plan of cramming five full 
meals into twelve hours, accounts for the latter characteristic, and also 
explains why indigestion should rank among the most fearful and the 
commonest malady which attends upon domestication. 

The curry-comb is abolished ; but the generality of grooms also re- 
quire to be cautioned concerning the use of the wisp and the brush. 
The first article is generally brought down upon the sides with a succes- 
sion of heavy blows. Now, beating is not cleaning; neither is one act 



GROOMS. 343 

necessary to the proper performance of the other. The brush is often 
applied so quickly and sharply as to cause the animal to shrink. The 
groom would not admire being himself dressed according to such a 
method. The hair cloth should be used to remove impurities ; the 
brush is employed to expel loose particles, and to smooth any hair which 
the previous process may have disturbed or roughened ; the wisp is in- 
tended to polish the coat. Any violence over and above that requisite 
to fulfill such intentions, is needless cruelty, and should, when detected, 
be immediately checked. 

The more important portion of a groom's duty, however, concerns the 
treatment necessary for a wet, a tired, a dirty, or a heated horse. Most 
servants are successful in dressing an animal when the stable is entered 
in the morning, but few comprehend how to groom a steed in any of the 
conditions which have just been named ; and, of that number, fewer still 
care to stay out of their beds to cleanse the soiled coats of the creatures 
intrusted to their custody. 

Clipping and singeing are processes which all stable-men greatly ad- 
mire. However, before the grounds of their admiration are criticised, it 
may be as well to reason a little upon what appears to be a growing 
custom. British horses are deprived of the thick, warm covering which 
nature bestows only in the winter. It certainly does sound somewhat 
paradoxical, when it is stated that the English allow their quadrupeds 
to run about in full costume during the summer's heat, but take off every 
protection as wet, snow, and frost approach. Certainly, if extra cover- 
ing is requisite at any period, man, by great-coats, cloaks, mantles, over- 
shoes, respirators, boas and comforters, has declared that Christmas is 
the time for additional warm clothing. But the groom protests it is im- 
possible to keep a wintry equine garment dry ; he says that when the 
creature has been made comfortable the previous evening, the coat is 
often found to be quite wet on the following morning. 

Still, in some very cold climates, it is not unusual to wet the garments, 
for the purpose of confining the animal heat, or of preventing cuticular 
evaporation ; therefore, the moisture of the skin may be ordained with 
a benevolent design. But granting all the groom can object to wintry 
perspirations, the body which perspires is confined in a stable, and an 
impure atmosphere can occasion a faintness which shall provoke a 
copious cuticular emission. At all events, man has, in his treatment of 
the horse, made such egregious blunders that he ought to be careful how 
he presumes, in future, to differ from the ordinances of nature. 

To illustrate the effects produced by a thick, wet covering, and by a 
thin, wet envelope, let the author narrate the result of a very simple ex- 
periment, which the reader may without much trouble institute for him- 



344 GROOMS. 

self. Obtain two bottles. Wrap one closely in several layers of calico ; 
around the otber fix only a single, tightly-fitting covering of the same 
fabric. Saturate the cloths of both bottles with water ; also fill the in- 
terior of each with the same liquid. Renew the moisture to the two 
coverings as either becomes dry. After twelve hours, test the tempera- 
tures of the contents poured from either bottle. That from the thickly- 
covered (which may remain wet) vessel will be unchanged, or warmer 
for its confinement ; that contained within the thinly-protected inclosure 
(which possibly shall be quite dry) will be cold, very cold — so cold, that 
in warm climates water is thus rendered a refreshing draught. Nay, the 
hotter the medium to which the bottles have been exposed, the colder 
will be the temperature of the thinly-coated liquid. 

Now, the stable is always a heated medium. The animal with a thick 
coat is represented by the vessel with a thick incasement, the contents 
of which are not chilled by the moisture which saturates its envelope. 
The clipped steed is represented by the bottle thinly enfolded, the liquid 
within which became cold. But, it may be urged, the clipped horse is 
never moist. Then perspiration must be checked, and fever must bo 
present; for, during health, the pores of the skin are never inactive. 
Where the coat is removed, superficial perspiration, accompanied with 
constant evaporation, must always be taking place. Where the hair is 
thick, moisture naturally accumulates; because the covering prevents 
superficial evaporation, and thereby checks the operating cause of inter- 
nal frigidity. 

For the reasons explained by the above experiment, horses which 
have been clipped or singed are thereby rendered more susceptible to 
many terrible disorders. Any internal organ may be acutely attacked; 
because the perspiration has, by exposure of the skin, been thrown back 
upon the system. Numerous hunters (which animals are always clipped) 
fail, at the beginning of the season, from this cause. Nor can the author 
comprehend the purpose served by the prevailing custom, excepting the 
propitiation of a servant's humor. It is said, the animal moves so much 
more nimbly after the long coat has been removed. This may be the 
fact, though the author has hitherto seen no such marked change follow 
the operation as will allow him to deliberately corroborate the general 
assertion. 

Moreover, let the servant, when he notices the animals for the first 
time in the morning, observe the breathing of the quadrupeds. The 
building has been closely shut for the entire night, and the impure 
atmosphere will necessarily excite the respiration. Now, it may not be 
exactly in accoi'dance with the groom's notions, but scientific men have 
long known the skin and the lungs to be joined in one and the same 



GROOMS. 345 

function. Then, what right has ignorance to expect one to be idle when 
the other is oppressed ? 

Perspiration only implies cuticular activity. It is a healthy action ; 
the emission of the horse is only an effort of nature to cast off those 
impurities which man obliges his prisoner to inhale. The clipped animal 
must also perspire if it also inhabit the building, and remain free from 
disease. The skin must equally exhale, as a law of its existence ; but 
the hair being short, and the surface of the body exposed, the heated 
medium in which the creature stands may cause the moisture to evapo- 
rate as rapidly as it is emitted. Still, all this will not satisfy the stable- 
man. It is not only the wetness of the coat which he dreads, but it is 
the presence of dirt that he abominates. Long hair attracts and pro- 
tects mud, which, however, is easily removed from any substance, after 
it has been allowed to yield up its component moisture. 

Viewing the insensible perspiration as an established fact, the prevailing 
customs are not unattended with danger. The advent of the summer's 
covering is delayed, and the system seems to suffer greatly during the 
subsequent period of changing the coat. The pace flags ; the spirits fail ; 
and the quadruped becomes more susceptible to disease, at a time of 
year when equine disorders are commonly more general and more 
virulent. 

Yet, it may be urged, that in the winter season the roads are far 
dirtier, and the long coat is so much more retentive and more difficult to 
cleanse. Here again the argument returns to the groom, and to his dis- 
taste for his avocation. It is true, a long-haired heel should not be made 
clean after the usual fashion. The man should not take the horse outside 
into the night air, and should not tie its head to the stable walls. He 
should not dash a pail or two of cold Avater over the soiled and heated 
members ; and should not lead the horse back to its stall, retiring to bed 
with a comfortable conviction that he has done his duty. 

To fling about water necessitates little trouble, therefore it is a favorite 
practice with all stable attendants. Whether it meets with equal favor 
from the life whose heels have to sustain the deluge, no one has, hitherto, 
been weak enough to inquire. That nature intentionally clothed the 
horse's heels with long hair, to keep lowly-organized parts warm and 
free from dust, is a fact neither thought of nor cared about. The man 
specially retained to look after the quadrupeds cuts away the provision 
which was instituted by the Source of all mercy; then applies cold 
water to the organs which Wisdom saw reason to shelter, leaving the 
members to chill and chap, while he retires to his repose. 

The animal, with its dripping heels, is hastily fastened in a stall. The 
clipped legs of a horse are admirably adapted to exemplify the effects of 



34(i 



GROOMS. 



evaporation. That portion of the body where the circulation is most 
feeble has to endure the effects of the process which can generate cold, 
even during the extremity of the summer's heat. Cracked heels, grease, 
etc. (see "Illustrated Horse Doctor") are the immediate results; and 
the master who makes the welfare of his steed subservient to the idle 
prejudices of his groom, is fitly punished in the lengthened period of his 
animal's compulsory idleness, appropriately finished by the payment of 
a long bill to the vetermary surgeon. 




THE USUAL METHOD OF CLEANSLNQ A HOESE'S HEELS. 



The author seriously proposes that all horses' legs should be permitted 
to retain the adornments which were sent by the bounty of nature for 
the comfort of her creatures. The clipped or singed horse is a deformity : 
the color is unnatural: the coat is dull and stubborn, looking most 
unlike that polished surface which is native to the beautiful quadruped. 
Moreover, those who live in a temperate climate should be content to 
forego certain elegances which are natural to warmer regions : or, if 
they will have tropical loveliness, they should encourage it by those 
means which enable oranges to ripen in England, and not descend to 



GROOMS. 347 

meannesses which may expose their desires, but can deceive no one, — 
not even the most ignorant in horse flesh. 

Supposing a horse to be brought home with undipped but with soiled 
heels ; with the lower part of the abdomen covered by dirt, and the coat 
drenched with rain : — the animal is led into the stable ; the bridle and 
saddle are removed ; the body is fii'st quickly scraped ; then it is rubbed 
over with a few dry wisps ; afterward it is lightly hooded and covered 
with an ample sheet. The master, who has hastily taken off his boots 
and changed so much of his clothing as was wet, now returns, bringing 
a quart of warm beer in a pudding dish, and he remains to see the quad- 
ruped drain the draught. 




GIVING A llORiB A (iUART OF MALT LIQUOK. 



Horses soon learn to drink and to enjoy malt liquor. Were such 
stimulants equally at their command, certainly the animal would excel 
its superiors in habits of intoxication. The majority of quadrupeds 
may, with the first few draughts, require a little coaxing ; but the pri- 
mary disinclination overcome, the craving for such an indulgence seems 
to be immoderate. An occasional stimulant is, however, very useful in 
the stable. It revives exhaustion, and restores vigor to the circulation. 
The timely administration of a quart of fermented liquor to a jaded 
steed has often prevented those evils which usually attend upon bodily 
prostration. 



348 



GROOMS. 



The drink being swallowed, the sheet is taken off, and the body made 
thoroughly dry with wisps and cloths. The lad again employs the 
scraper: the man with a cloth dries the ej^es, channel between the 
thighs, chest and abdomen, always performing his duties with gentle- 
ness, and discarding the cloth for a hay wisp, where the hair is thick, or 
wherever the water appears to have lodged. While this is doing, the 
proprietor should comb out the tail, the forelock, and the mane; he 
should also discharge those many little offices which are not laborious, 
but which add greatly to the comfort of a tired animal. Other portions 
of this matter will be treated of in another part of the present article, — 
such portions being, the food proper subsequent to fatigue, and the right 
method of cleaning the heels. However, it may be necessary to observe 
in this place that before the quadruped is left for the night, the sheet 
should be remov^ed, and the usual night rug put on to the body. 




CLEANSING AN EXHAUSTED UORSE. 



When a horse is bi'ought in, covered with perspiration, it is led at 
once into the stable; master, man, and boy should join in its purifica- 
tion. The lad takes the scraper, and, beginning at the quarters, hastily 
presses out the excess of moisture ; while the groom procures a pail of 
cold and a pail of warm water. All being ready, the master not having 
left the stable, the lad brings forth a dish of diluted soap, (half a pound 
of soap whisked about till it has dissolved in one quart of water,) and, 
dipping his right hand in this preparation, he smears it all over the body. 
So fast as the youth rubs the soap into the hair, the groom washes it off, 



GROOMS. 



349 



by pouring warm water over the place. The warm water carries away 
the soap, and with it are also removed all the impurities natural to the 
soiled condition of the skin. 

After the groom comes the master, who pours upon the body, already 
washed with warm fluid, a stream of cold water from the rose of a 
watering-pot. The intention of the process may be thus explained. 
The dissolved soap and the warm water are simply used to cleanse the 
body ; having done this, the cold water is applied merely to close the 
pores of the skin, and to invigorate the system which exertion had 
debilitated. 




CLEANSING AND COOUNO A TIRED HORSE. 



This accomplished, all hands present, after the manner already directed, 
should set to work : scraping, rubbing, combing, and using their utmost 
endeavors to dry the animal as quickly as possible. The horse is then 
lightly hooded and clothed. Where there exists a covered way, the 
animal should be run up and down the protected road six or sgven times ; 
then returned to the stable. Should there be no ambulatory connected 
with the premises, the friction ought to be continued longer than other- 
wise, so that the surface of the skin may be gently warmed, and the 
circulation slightly quickened, that being all the little amount of motion 
which was ordered could accomplish. 



350 



GROOMS. 



With regard to the legs and feet of the animal, these parts are so 
much exposed that to them the same danger does not attend the presence 
of damp as is commonly dreaded in the human subject. The water 
with which the body has been drenched will naturally flow down the 
legs, and remove from them no inconsiderable quantity of soil. All, 
however, having been performed as directed, the groom takes up each 
hoof and cleans it thoroughly out with a picker and a hard brush. Then 
he goes upon his knees ; with several straw wisps, he removes so much 
dirt and moisture as will yield to friction. This done, he brushes over 
the outer wall of the horn with glycerin, and rolls bandages round the 
legs. 




DKTING THE HEELS. 



In the above illustration, the size of the horse cloth cannot otherwise 
than have appeared strange to the reader. But things as large, if not 
of a greater magnitude, should be in every stable — not for general use, 
but for special occasions. The ordinary rug merely covers the spine, 
not doing so much toward keeping warm the carcass of a horse as 
would be effected by a Guernsey jacket upon the body of a man. Yet, 
who would think of employing the last article as a sole envelope for a 
cold and fatigued traveler ? This, however, is all modern custom sanc- 
tions for the comfort of a tired and exhausted steed I The folly of so 
inadequate a provision is apparent, and the necessity of the innovation 
suggested by the last engraving must be obvious to all who will con- 
descend to think seriously on the subject. 

While the legs are being attended to, the supper may also be before 
the horse. The meal, however, should not be of the full quantity or of 



GROOMS. 



351 



a heavy nature. The stomach sympathizes with the general exhaustion 
of the body; the digestion is too much weakened to appropriate its 
ordinary nutriment. For a steed whose feeding capabilities are not 
hearty, a little bread and salt, ofiTered from the hand of its human 
favorite, will frequently be eaten. Half of a half quartern loaf, lightly 
seasoned, commonly will be gratefully accepted, if given in the manner 
directed. Often, however, the craving is limited to liquids, all solid 
provender being refused. 

The animal should not be annoyed by any well-intentioned coaxing 
to eat, when nature commands it to abstain. The inclination of the 
quadruped should, at this time, always be respected ; for a tired steed 
stands upon the borders of inflammation, and in proportion to the value 
of the quadruped invariably is the danger of an attack. Hard-worked 
horses often want the stamina which enables nature to resist the effects 
of exhaustion. The bread, if not accepted, should be immediately with- 
drawn, and a pail of well and smoothly made gruel, with which the meal 
was to have concluded, be alone presented. All other food should be 
removed, and the animal left, supperless, to its repose. 




If the gruel is rejected, take it away ; place it in a cool situation, and 
it may be swallowed with avidity on the following morning. If allowed 



352 GROOMS. 

to remain, the animal will breathe upon it, and grow to distaste the 
nourishment. Suffer the horse to take the rest which a disinclination to 
feed will have informed you is nature's primary requirement. Only, 
order the groom once or twice to peep at the nag through the window 
which overlooks the stable. Should the creature have laid down, the 
man may retire to his bed, convinced that all his well; but should the 
animal, upon the second inspection, be beheld standing up, no time must 
be lost. The servant ought to dress himself, to apprise his master, and 
to descend to the stable; for this attitude, being long maintained, is 
among the earliest and surest indications that disease has commenced. 

A good feeder may simply require an allowance of bruised beans and 
corn, to be well boiled in a sufficiency of water, and, before being pre- 
sented as two meals, quite cold. No hay, but a little bran or chaff 
should accompany the mess, as the desire is to nourish the system with- 
out overloading the stomach. Should, however, this potion be refused, 
it is soon converted into gruel, by stirring to it a sufficiency of water and 
placing it on the fire ; afterward by pouring the liquid through a strainer, 
the husks are readily separated. It is but seldom that full feeders are 
thus far exhausted. A voracious appetite is commonly united to so 
much slothfulness of body as saves the horse from the aggravated effects 
of absolute muscular and nervous prostration. 

On the following morning — supposing no mishap to have occurred — 
when the time arrives to groom the horse, the bandages should be taken 
off, and, as each wrapper is removed, the leg ought to be dressed. Firstly, 
the member should be well rubbed with several wisps of straw. The 
more apparent dirt being removed, the part should be further cleansed 
by application of the hand. After this the hair should be combed ; then 
again ruffled with the hand — these processes being terminated by a 
thorough application of the dry water brush. This operation should be 
repeated upon each leg, no hurry being indulged in the performance of 
this operation; but water should not be applied to the heels, without 
the special leave of the proprietor having been obtained. The case 
should be very marked before such permission is accorded; for wet to 
the heel is the cause of numerous troublesome affections. 

Most grooms are convinced of the propriety of walking the horse up 
and down when the creature has returned, and perspiration has moist- 
ened the winter's coat. The author has, elsewhere, illustrated the folly 
of this practice. The body soon chills, upon a change of action ; not-, 
withstanding a most conscientious individual might swear the legs have 
never ceased moving. It is better to have the horse at once brought 
into the stable ; to cleanse the skin with liquid soap and warm water ; 
and to close the open pores by the application of cold fluid ; then, with 



GROOMS. 



353 



vigorous friction, using straw wisps, to cause a reaction in the circula- 
tion. Only, where the author's last recommendation is adopted, the 
friction must not cease until the skin glows, which it usually will in a 
remarkably short period. 




THI OROOM, ON HIS KNEES, TAKING OFf THE BANDAGES AND RUBDING THE DIRT OUT OF THE HORSE'S 1X08. 

All grooms are much disposed to treat the foot of the horse as a 
mysterious organ, which none but a person reared in a stable possibly 
can comprehend. This is the result of impudence and ignorance, work- 
ing for the exaltation of selfishness. The foot is not generally under- 
stood, because people, in their folly, will insist on regarding a very 
simple member as an uncommon and a complicated structure. The 
hoiTi being porous, insensible perspiration should escape through its 
minute openings. To prove this, let the gentleman accompany his nag 
to the farrier's, the next time the animal is shod. When the sole is 
pared, let a wineglass be held over the part, and the surface of the vessel 
will speedily be bedewed with the exuding moisture. 

Now, grooms understand nothing, and care less about the perspiratory 
property of the horn. They cannot understand how the stoppage of 
perspiration may induce serious sickness. Therefore, most of the secret 
nostrums employed to embellish and to keep healthy the horn of the 

23 



354 GROOMS. 

horse's foot contain tallow, wax, lamp-black, and various solids, which 
must clog the pores of the hoof, and, by arresting one of its functions, 
provoke disease. The best application to adorn this part is a little of 
the glycerin mixture, directions for preparing which have already been 
given. This moistens and renders pliable the hoof, which, be it black or 
white, will present a'polished surface, without the pores being clogged 
up by the tenacious property of its substance. 

It is a general custom to contract with the groom, that he shall sup- 
ply the horse with cloths, brushes, etc. The sum usually given is four 
or five pounds, over and above the yearly wages. This custom is at- 
tended with two evils and with one advantage. The evils are, — should 
the man quit his situation, he commonly leaves an empty stable behind 
him; or the master has to buy a second time those things which his 
money has already purchased. The other objection being, — that grooms 
are likely to procure less than is essential, when the fewer articles they 
can make shift with puts so much money into their pockets ; thereby 
the horse is either imperfectly attended to, or the vehicle (where the 
groom has to look after one) suffers from the want of proper appliances. 
The solitary advantage which attends this kind of arrangement being, — 
that it enables the proprietor to estimate, with greater accuracy, the cost 
of his establishment. 

London stables are all faulty. Such places are much too small. A 
stable which is professed to contain four stalls, should be divided into two 
loose boxes ; or it might, if the stalls are of the kind which is denominated 
"roomy," be converted into three small compartments. Therefore, every 
gentleman hiring a building for this purpose, should rent one which, in 
London, is generally esteemed larger than he is supposed to require. 
The alterations are quickly made; and the proprietor may be certain 
that his outlay will bear a most liberal interest. Where valuable horses 
are concerned, rent is not a weighty consideration. 

The stable being taken and altered, order the groom to watch the eat- 
ing capacities of your horses. If he report that each feeds alike, or that 
all clear their mangers, either investigate the matter yourself, or have 
the animals observed by somebody on whose report you can better de- 
pend. It is seldom that three quadrupeds meet, having precisely equal 
capacities in any particular. The author has, seemingly, ordered one 
general quantity for all horses ; but those who serve out the provender 
should apportion the amount by the results of experience. 

There is one quality for which most London grooms are remarkable ; 
nevertheless this conspicuous characteristic appears to have, hitherto, 
escaped observation. They all display a strange union of extreme inno- 
cence and the height of knowingness. They profess to understand 



GROOMS. 355 

everything which concerns the horse. In every essential of the many 
circumstances which surround all animals, they will not quietly permit 
their knowledge to be questioned. But wnth regard to that particular 
sphere which it is their duty to be acquainted with, they ape an inno- 
cence which, in its excess of wonder, amounts to the possible extent of 
impudence. 

The groom prides himself on the power of being " close ;^^ but he 
exhibits this attainment chiefly to his master, and principally at his 
employer's cost. Let anything be broken in the stable, and it only 
excites the groom's surprise. He knows nothing about it. If a horse 
is seriously injured, the man who looks after the animal hails the event 
as an "accident:" is perplexed by its occurrence, and never has the 
remotest idea how it could have happened. Should anything be miss- 
ing, the servant recognizes its absence with astonishment, and remem- 
bers to have recently seen it ; but cannot imagine where or how it has 
departed ! 

On the other hand, his knowledge masters impossibilities. He can 
make any lame horse go sound ; he can induce prime condition in less 
than a week ; he can cure glanders ; he can render the most savage 
horse as tame as a lap-dog ; he knows how to plan a stable ; how to 
make harness look well and last long ; understands carriages ; and, in 
short, is a perfect proficient in everybody's business, though he never 
knew anything that immediately concerns his own immediate depart- 
ment. 

The reader will have drawn the inference from the above fact that a 
groom is never to be believed. The author laments he cannot gainsay 
such a conclusion. The master will only be misled by following his 
servant's teaching. Domestics of all descriptions are to be employed ; 
theirs is no office of instruction. Yet grooms deal largely in advice, 
and always have an opinion ready to be advanced. The gentleman will 
gain who can afford to discard such pretensions. Keep the stable-man 
entirely to his duties. Never allow him to exceed these. Never permit 
him to quit his legitimate sphere ; for, in any other province, he is the 
very dearest assistant that money could possibly procure. 

In conclusion, never permit the London groom, save at certain unem- 
ployed and stated periods, to engage in household duties. 

He speedily grows to be worthless in both occupations, when his 
labor equally concerns the home and the stable. The horse is the 
excuse, when any domestic order is not fulfilled; the house is his justi- 
fication, whenever complaint is made that the quadruped, the vehicle, or 
the harness exhibits evidences of neglect. This is one of the reasons 
why so many disgraceful single horse "turn outs" may be beheld 



356 



GROOMS. 



journeying through the streets of London. Sights which are melan- 
choly to contemplate, and disgraceful for any gentleman to acknowl- 
edge. 

In a previous chapter the author has described what a stable ought to 
be ; but he anticipates it will be a long time before the public shall con- 
sent to adopt the writer's notions. Most persons will not soon amend 
or speedily change the conveniences attending the present form of 
stables. However, when renting a building divided into stalls, any- 
body may command one loose box. This is readily made by placing 
two bales across the gangway, reaching from the farthest trevise, each 
bale resting against the wall of the building. Such an extemporaneous 
makeshift has been found very useful in cases of severe injury or of 
sudden disease. 




THE MANNER IN WHICH THE LAST STALL OF A STABLE MAT BE READILY CONVERTED INTO 
A LOOSE BOS. 



CHAPTER XL 

HORSE DEALERS — WHO THEY ARE, THEIR MODE OF DEALING, THEIR 
PROFITS, THEIR MORALITY, AND THEIR SECRETS. 

"All horse dealers are rogues !" Such is a common belief, which too 
many persons are willing to indorse. The term "horse dealer," how- 
ever, embraces individuals of very adverse and of entirely different 
pursuits, each seeking business in opposite spheres ; one rarely meeting 
the other; but all trading with the animal, though with a very dis- 
similar description of horse. Horse "copers" and horse "chaunters" 
assuredly buy and sell horses. So far they are entitled to be called 
"horse dealers;" but all such characters are unscrupulous rogues. 
Most liverymen, and the various people who live in a mews, or write 
"job master" after their names, delight in "a deal," when they can con- 
template a speedy and a safe profit. Carters, cab proprietors, farmers, 
and the heads of all commission stables either buy or sell — or do both 
occasionally — horses. There is hardly a gentleman in Britain who, if 
buying or selling an animal could constitute a dealer in horses, might 
not wear the title. The genius which presides over an auction mart 
has always a desire to knock down, to himself, any very cheap lot; 
while the majority of blacklegs and of men about town can, generally, 
inform an inquiring friend of "the very spiciest thing," which will "be 
given away for the merest trifle." 

Of all these cheats, for all are ready to become such upon opportunity, 
the bad one, perhaps the least suspected, is no other than gentlemen 
who, over a glass of wine, will reluctantly part with a "screw" for fifty 
times the value of its carcass. The worst specimen of unmitigated im- 
position, having any pretense to fair bargaining, which the author can 
call to mind, was thus palmed off upon an unsuspecting friend. The 
gentlemen looked fierce and talked loud when expostulated with, having 
strong motives for not hearkening to reason. There are always one or 
two very pleasant fellows of this stamp, riding after every pack of 
hounds. They usually are careful equestrians, very saving of their 
steeds, excepting when near to some youthful member of the hunt; 
then the rein is slackened and the spur quietly apphed. But of all 

(357) 



358 



HORSE DEALERS. 



the impostors who practice with horses, the rankest and the most inde- 
feasible is the scamp who advertises "the property of a gentleman de- 
ceased." Such a "dodge," judging by the numbers who adopt it, must 
prove a paying pursuit. Yet this form of roguery has been so frequently 
exposed, and is apparently so thoroughly known, it becomes difficult to 
imagine the spell by which its daily victims are fascinated. 




A PEEP INTO A dealer's TARD. 



The horse dealers of whom the present chapter pretends to treat be- 
long to none of these parties. They shun the mews, and each possesses 
a private yard, with his name painted above it. These places are always 
scrupulously clean. The entrances are ever adorned with a sprinkling 
of fresh sand. Facing the gateway is a covered ride, invariably deeply 
littered with clean straw. On one side of this ride is a spotless wall, 
opposite to which there exists a paved space or broad roadway. On 
the farther edge of this paved space stands a sort of cottage, looking as 



HORSE DEALERS. 



359 



smart as new paint or whitewash can render it, and adorned with ah 
kinds of cockney rusticity. Here resides the master, — a person favored 
with a goodly presence, and, when waiting for customers, always clothed 
in spotless apparel, generally of a sporting character. 

This tradesman does not pretend to sell cheap horses. Most ignorant 
people, however, hunger after bargains, and out of such desires the 
numerous dishonest traders make their market. A really cheap horse is 
not to be honestly purchased in London. Those who wish for such an 
article, should follow the example of the regular dealer; they should 
travel among the northern breeders, or they should visit the far-off fairs, 
where such people congregate. If to do this involves too much trouble, 
or necessitates too great an expense, then they should be content to pay 
those persons who, in the way of business, encounter both the fatigue 
and the cost. 




TRE NIGHT BKFORE THE HORSE FAIR. 



The London visitor to a Yorkshire farm or to a country fair must not, 
however, expect that any cash will enable him to pick "the field." 
Liberal as may be his offers, there is an influence which can take prece- 
dence of money. On the farm and at the fair, the London dealers are 
expected, and generally have the earliest information when anything 
very choice is for sale. Their advent is anticipated at the several inns 
which they frequent ; their arrivals are bruited about, long before deal- 



360 HORSE DEALERS. 

ing is supposed to have commenced. All breeders are anxious to sell 
to these notorieties. Private views are proffered and accepted ; sales or 
exchanges are made, and business may be verj brisk, days prior to the 
fair beginning. In short, too many gentlemen visit the gathering for 
amusement. The farmer cannot by outward signs distinguish such from 
the would-be purchaser; whereas the dealer always means buying. 
This constitutes the purpose of his visit. His time and money are 
wasted, if he travels far and makes no purchase. The certainty about 
his intentions, as well as the prospect of securing a future customer, 
insures him the first offer from all who have colts for sale. 

The legitimate horse dealers are, as a body, most honorable and highly 
respectable men. They are not all profoundly educated, though there 
are among them exceptions even in this respect; but in their business 
with mankind, no class is more undervalued ; no class is more exposed 
to annoyance ; and no class can display a finer sense of probity. There 
is, perhaps, only one failing that could be justly maintained against the 
entire body : that one may not be denied, although it is easily excused. 
They are habitual liars ! In the way of trade, no horse dealer can 
speak the truth concerning any animal he may possess. All such creat- 
ures are without fault, trick, or blemish ! The whole stud are spotless 
pictures ! Each and every one must be perfect 1 

It cannot be imagined that honest people delight in needless lies. 
The violation of a moral obligation can afford no gratification to an 
honorable mind ; but when a large body of men exemplify any one par- 
ticular failing, it may be reasonably concluded that the pressure of society 
has induced the deficiency which we, who are removed from the crowd, 
must not too severely stigmatize. The public well know that a faultless 
horse — one perfect in form and pace — ^which can do everything and can 
carry anything — a creature without a "vice," and free from blemish — is 
a species of sphinx, which the oldest equestrian has never looked upon. 
Yet no one ever enters a dealer's yard, except he be hunting after this 
impossible perfection. Were the willing customer met with candor; 
were the tradesman to show his stock, and truthfully to catalogue the 
defects of each, — who, to reward veracity, would purchase the confessedly 
faulty articles ? No one ! Therefore the public force the dealer in horses 
to abjure truth, when they unite and they insist he shall possess creatures 
which in this world are known to be positively unattainable ! 

Society is clearly answerable for the dealer's misstatements, since men 
will only visit him on certain terms, which declare he shall lie to live, 
or he may tell the truth and starve. His customers tacitly unite to en- 
tangle the man in a web of falsehoods ; while not one of these persons, 
even the most credulous, believes a syllable of the needless assertions to 



HORSE DEALERS. 361 

which they listen. No one accepted a horse as sound, because the dealer 
protested it was, "as a roach." A warranty would be taken, although 
the oath of the seller should attest to perfectibility of the animal. A 
species of fiction is, consequently, employed by the class as a business 
requisite; but the habits of trade are not transplanted into the trans- 
actions of private life. The author has known tradespeople among horse 
dealers whose characters were as estimable and whose private words 
were as trustworthy as those of any gentleman whose friendship he has 
the honor to enjoy. 

All callings have certain prides or weaknesses in which the community 
at large cannot be expected to sympathize. Horse dealers are not ex- 
ceptions to this rule. The first qualification for the calling is the recog- 
nition of a good horse, — ^no matter where or under what circumstances 
it may be seen. With the recognition must also exist a power of cor- 
rectly fixing the selling price or the marketable value. Complex calcu- 
lation must also be instantly solved. The quadruped may be lean : then 
must be estimated the time and the money requisite to promote the sell- 
ing condition. The animal may be worn out with unsuitable employ- 
ment: then must be reckoned the sum which will train it to a more 
fitting use. The creature may be a colt, raw, and at a distance from 
the dealer's home : quick as thought, however, must be ascertained the 
probable cost of breaking and of conditioning, with the hazard, etc. at- 
tendant upon a long journey. These things must be summed up at a 
glance; and, while the brain is engaged, the countenance must not 
betray the matter of cogitation. 

An ability to do this is the attainment which enables a stout person 
to stand the center of a group, — drinking, laughing, and chatting ; never- 
theless keeping his mind so steady and his eye so clear to business as 
will justify him in purchasing young stock which has only been once led 
past him. All horse dealers, however, are not thus gifted : very many 
live to repent the hasty judgments on which their money has been 
staked ; but the ideal, to which all aspire and which not a few certainly 
embody, is fairly stated in the above qualifications necessary for the 
successful pursuit of the trade. 

Not the easiest portion of the business is to form a just estimate of 
the taste of the customers ; so that when a horse is shown, the purchaser 
may ideally behold some patron upon the animal's back ; for a dealer 
rarely likes to buy without he can discern his way to the end of the 
transaction. "Ah! just Sir William's stamp 1" "Lady Louisa would 
give her heart rather than miss that, after having seen itl" Or, "The 
very cut for Lord Harry's hunt I" These, and similar mental ejaculations, 
are at once acted upon. The tastes and foibles of various customers are 



352 



HORSE DEALERS. 



always estimated. It is astonishing how seldom comparatively coarse 
and uneducated judgments err, though all such calculations may not in- 
variably succeed. The failures, together with cheap purchases, however, 
constitute the ordinary stock-in-trade of most yards. 

The foregoing qualifications are imperative in first-rate purchasers; 
but other accomplishments are also requisite in the perfect dealer. His 
manner must be so brusque as to provoke laughter ; nevertheless so ap- 
parently simple as not to alarm the most timid customer. This suggests 
a nice medium; but it is astonishing how tenderly some unrefined intel- 
lects will embody it. The stout person who, as you enter the gateway, 




THE MAN, GRACED WITH THE SWEETEST MANNERS, WHO SELLS THE HORSES. 



salutes you with a not altogether ungraceful lift of the hat, and rings the 
bell as he approaches to learn your wishes, may be barely able to read 
or to write. In a particular line of diplomacy, however, he is a model 
worthy study ; for, smiling as his face may be — bland as his manners 



HORSE DEALERS. 363 

are — or studied as bis dress appears — still, he is reckoning you up in his 
own mind; and all the time you are quizzing him, he is cunningly 
endeavoring to fathom your intentions and to form a correct estimate of 
your character. 

Certain members of the trade possess in an extraordinary degree a 
power to comprehend the unacknowledged purpose of those individuals 
whom they encounter. Without such an accomplishment, no man is 
fitted to take charge of the yard ; as, unless he be thus qualified, the 
horses might be trotted up and down when quiet was needed to rest the 
bodies or to lay on flesh. 

Gentlemen who do not exactly know their own minds, very rarely 
become purchasers; but these uncertainties are seldom tired of seeing 
the dealer's stock run out before them. Were not such individuals to be 
recognized, the grooms might be vexed, the master might be fatigued, 
and the animals might be plagued, — only to extort a verbal promise 
"to look in some other day." Whereas popular prejudice insists that on 
the dealer's premises all should be smiles — men and horses must appear 
overflowing with life — gay and happy ; as though the place sheltered no 
anxiety, and none within it knew a care. 

The regular horse dealer rather avoids than encourages customers 
who are called "flats." He does not object to inexperience, when it 
will rely upon his generosity, and confide itself to the more practical 
judgment of the tradesman. Such a person, under the dealer's guid- 
ance, perhaps would be safer than he would be in the hands of most 
fashionable friends. But there is always an absence of welcome when 
a young gentleman lounges into the yard, who wants something and 
never buys anything until he has been thoroughly taken in. 

When an individual presents himself to the attendant of the ride, it 
is necessary the standing of the new customer should be ascertained 
before any quadruped is submitted to his notice. Curious mistakes are 
sometimes made ; but it is now understood that such a matter must be 
decided prior to the commencement of any business. This arrangement 
saves time, and also secures other advantages ; for, obviously, nothing 
could be gained by showing "a park hack" to a city merchant; neither 
would much satisfaction be expressed were the animal suited to drag a 
spring cart submitted to the notice of some titled turfite. The time 
would be wasted, during which a cob worth five hundred pounds was 
paraded before a person whose ideas were limited to something under 
forty guineas; and the quiet nag, qualified to carry age with safety, 
would not be even inspected by a youngster who was impatient to be 
mounted upon his first "May bird." 

The phrase last employed — "May bird" — may not be intelligible to 



364 



HORSE DEALERS. 



all readers. Therefore the equestrian must pardon the author, if he 
here interrupts the course of the present description to explain its mean- 
ing. A " May bird " implies a young animal of no great height, with 
some showy points, but with no constitution to stand work. These 
quadrupeds are kept, during the spring season, in the stables of most 
London dealers ; and they are shown to young gentlemen as handsome 
saddle horses. The majority, however, soon succumb to work; many 
yield as the warm weather increases ; and few endure even to a second 
season. 




A MAT BIRD. 



To establish a connection requires that each customer should be better 
suited even than pleased. Both are, of course, desirable ; but a person 
well suited generally becomes well pleased; whereas the individual 
whose pleasure is alone consulted, not being suited, is certain to grow 
ultimately dissatisfied. Horse dealing, therefore, is attended with con- 
siderable anxiety ; yet the members of the calling generally grow fat 
upon such a diet. Few, when of middle age, retain a figure fitted for 
the saddle, although nearly all have been good and fearless horsemen 
during youth. The pursuit, however, is not one of laziness ; but often 
obliges the endurance of great bodily and mental fatigue. 

All dealers travel much. They always attend those large horse fairs 
which are held in the north of England. Their business compels them 
to make periodical journeys among the distant breeders of stock. When 
walking over the breeder's farm, they often interrupt conversation to 
bid for some foal; and may, off-hand, purchase the animal wh.ch shall 
please their fancy. Business always seems the last subject which oc- 



HORSE DEALERS. 365 

cupies the dealer's thoughts ; nevertheless, he is invariably alive to the 
opportunities of trade. Some of the calling will buy unbroken or very 
young colts, though such speculations are rather exceptional with the 
general body. All, however, will make a conditional bargain for the 
"hkely thing." Such transactions are arranged in few words; and 
though no writings may be drawn up, these understandings are usually 
observed by both parties to the contract. 

At the successive horse fairs, a dealer generally occupies the same 
station. His back may rest against some rail ; and here, surrounded by 
an eager group, he appears the most gay of the party. Various young 
horses are brought and run before him ; for, at the accustomed spot, the 
little man is always anticipated. Some horses he buys ; others he rejects. 
Respectable dealers usually accept their purchases upon no better se- 
curity than their personal judgment. They ask for no written warranty ; 
a verbal assurance that "all is right," is with them sufficient. Though 
should any palpable defect or injury, which has undergone treatment, be 
subsequently discovered, of course the bargain is void. 

But low or sharp tradesmen are very particular about written war- 
ranties ; consequently they cannot command the choice of the market. 
Breeders know perfectly Avell the dishonest uses to which a written war- 
ranty can be converted. A horse may be sold ; but it is not always got 
rid of when a written warranty accompanies the sale. It may be taken 
to London. Months afterward, the breeder may receive a letter which 
shall contain a veterinary surgeon's certificate of unsoundness, stating 
that lameness or "the seeds of disease" must have existed at the time 
of purchase. This letter generally concludes with a demand that the 
purchase money may be returned, all expenses be paid, and the animal 
be fetched away; or, if these conditions are not convenient, the late 
purchaser will consent to retain the horse, supposing twenty pounds of 
the sum formerly received are forwarded to the address of "your humble 
servant." 

Now, to dispatch a man to town, to bring an animal many miles, to 
risk the chances of the journey, to return a sum of money which was 
probably spent as soon as received, and lastly, to pay for several months 
of keep, — are bad conditions. The farmer may be morally convinced 
that the report is unfounded ; but he has three choices before him : 
either to risk an action at law, to expend a considerable sum, or to be 
swindled out of a comparatively small amount. Any person can see 
which of such terms must be the easiest to a needy man; and the last 
is generally accepted. Thus, by a dishonest practice, the unscrupulous 
dealer obtains a colt cheap ; especially should the subsequent sale prove 
a fortunate transaction. 



366 HORSE DEALERS. 

The honest dealer purchases the young animal when fresh from the 
breaker's hands, before a day's work has been performed, and has the 
quadruped led or conveyed to London. If the journey is accomplished 
by the road — the stages, of necessity, being short — the expense and 
hazard are, of course, equal to the time occupied on the way. The 
railroad is a cheaper mode of transport ; but it is attended with a cer- 
tain risk, which is peculiarly its own. Some young horses will perish 
from the fright engendered by the journey; others are made seriously 
ill by the novelty of the situation ; while many knock themselves about, 
and arrive at the journey's termination seriously blemished. 

Several respectable dealers would prefer to have their stock rather 
killed outright, than behold it seriously blemished. In one case, the loss 
is by no means certain; in the other instance, the pecuniary sacrifice is 
small, when compared with the annoyance and the trouble consequent 
on the treatment of acute suffering. Besides, all dealers dislike to have 
an ailing quadi'uped on their premises, which they are desirous should 
be known only as the abode of happiness and of health. For such 
reasons, not a few of the fraternity, when any animal may be diseased 
or blemished, invariably dispose of it for whatever it will fetch, rather 
than incur the chances of recovery, or open their gates for the admit- 
tance of damaged stock. 

A business so conducted — requiring a considerable outlay, necessita- 
ting heavy risks and attended with frequent losses — must be recommended 
by certain profits. The costs of every dealer's establishment are very 
serious. Animals — especially very young animals — make no immediate 
return. The charge has not terminated when the colts are stabled in 
the place of trade. The creatures are then raw and wild. They have 
to be gradually brought into selling condition, and have to be fattened 
till unfit for work. They also have to be groomed until their coats 
shine "like satin." Such are the obligations of the London market; 
and though all animals in this state are dangerously near to disease, yet 
whoever, inhabiting the metropolis, should attempt to dispose of horse 
property in a more sound condition, will, in the certainty of loss, be 
heavily rebuked for his temerity. 

Moreover, when fresh from the country, young stock have to be 
accustomed to the bustle and noise inseparable from the streets of Lon- 
don. They have to become familiar with the difference of handling, 
voice, and manner, which distinguishes Yorkshire from Middlesex. The 
dealer, therefore, has some further employment, after his purchases are 
all safe in his stables. He has to rise early, before respectability is 
awake to watch his doings, in order to break in his fresh acquisitions. 
None but perfectly-trained horses are suffered to go out into the thronged 



HORSE DEALERS. 367 

thoroughfares. An animal is often secreted for months before it is 
permitted to "show abroad," and it is then expected, like a beauty at 
Almack's, "to ravish the eyes of all beholders." Lastly, the dealer in 
horses has to endure those checks and disappointments which attend 
upon every known speculation with life. 

Then, if not sold, the quadrupeds nevertheless must be fed. Thus 
several, before they meet a purchaser, "have eaten their own heads off 
twice over ;'''' or, in the language of ordinary life, have for provender 
cost more than their selling value. No reflective man can, therefore, 
anticipate a London dealer is to dispose of his stock-in-trade at what is 
implied by "reasonable prices." Some animals may fetch double or 
treble the purchase money; but the majority do little beyond paying 
their expenses. Nevertheless, as the dealer makes the selection, his 
judgment may be taunted, should he not choose horses that shall prove 
remunerative. 

We shall, however, best judge of the enormous profits attending this 
pursuit by considering results, as exemplified in the wealth of individuals. 
Perhaps for every man who succeeds in the business, three persons 
attempt it and become bankrupts. The fourth man may do a large 
trade; and, spite of the fickleness of fashion or the accidents of the 
London season, may maintain a position for several years. But how 
seldom is society startled by hearing of a deceased horse dealer having 
left behind him any vast sum of money to "his heirs and assigns !" On 
the other hand, the author knows of many instances where reputed 
thriving dealers have refused to rear their children to their own calling. 
Such acts do not denote horse dealing to be a highly lucrative specula- 
tion. Judging from long experience, the author would not point to the 
dealers of London, as a body, remarkable for the possession of any con- 
siderable amount of property. 

Carriage horses no London tradesman professes to keep. Thus one 
source of profit is relinquished; but should a pair of extraordinary 
beauties be encountered, when "on the travel," these will be secured; 
because the dealer knoWs there is always a market for such commodities. 
The treaty for the transfer of these rarities may even have been con- 
cluded before the prizes reached the marketable age; for, as a rule, 
extraordinary quadrupeds are seldom brought into the common market. 
It is an ambition with the trade to point to a pair of show}' bays in Her 
Majesty's stables, or before the vehicle of an exclusive nobleman, and to 
boast "those horses came from his yard." Of such scarce opportunities 
every dealer will joyfully avail himself; but there are many cogent 
"•easons which prevent him from constantly keeping his stables supplied 
with the ordinary kind of carriage quadrupeds. 



368 HORSE DEALERS. 

In the first place, the horses known as Cleveland bays are costly to 
purchase and expensive to keep. These creatures soon lose condition, 
and almost as rapidly yield to disease. Then, their sale is mostly con- 
fined to the London season. If not disposed of during their third year, 
age does not increase their value. Moreover, there are parties styled 
"large job masters " who, almost exclusively, trade in this kind of animal. 
These persons all keep extensive studs, some of the body being said to 
possess more than a thousand horses of this particular description. Such 
animals are let out by the year, for amounts varying from fifty to one 
hundred and fifty pounds ; the latter sum, however, mostly includes a 
contract to supply the stables also with food. 

Should a quadruped, while thus engaged, be taken ill, the owner 
receives back the invalid, and fills its place with a healthy substitute. 
If an animal is not approved of, it can always be exchanged. Thus, for 
a fixed sum, a carriage is nearly certain to be well horsed ; which, when 
equine episootics prevail, cannot be assured, where even more than the 
necessary pair are maintained. The gentleman is consequently spared 
the fruitless trouble of searching for, and the great expense of purchas- 
ing, those horses which fashion points to as, par excellence, alone fitted 
to run before a stylish equipage. The person, however, who lets out 
the animals does not always provide the food ; very rarely does he pay 
the cost incurred for shoeing, for lodging, or for attendance; though, for 
a proper consideration, he will contract to provide everything, — even the 
carriage in which his patrons shall ride. 

The owner of the carriage generally has to find shoes, stables, and 
servants, the jobbing being limited to the horses or to their sustenance. 
Job masters are generally much more wealthy than dealers, notwith- 
standing the feeble character of the Cleveland bays, and the notorious 
want of care bestowed by most persons who hire other people's prop- 
erty. Such a business evidently requires some tact and a large capital, 
to be successfully pursued. It is imperative the job master should stand 
especially well with the servants of his patrons. Such a necessity im- 
plies a perpetual drain upon the pocket, as the menial's good-will, if 
desired, must be purchased. Then, there is a large body of retainers to 
keep and to trust. The employment of these persons is to loiter about 
the different mews; to treat the servants; to coax information concern- 
ing masters' habits and missuses' exactions. 

Such particulars are essential, that the jobber may know where to 
place his animals. Young horses would be battered to pieces in the 
service of a lady who likes to be driven fast, pulled up sharp, or who 
stays "out late o' nights." An elderly person, who never ventures 
abroad after dark, and is averse to speed, has the carriage sometimes 



HORSE DEALERS. 369 

beautifully horsed ; because such stables are regarded as nurseries, al- 
though, more than occasionally, they are used to coax a sick animal 
back to health. Here the jobber's understanding with the coachman 
comes into play. The driver makes repeated complaints of a certain 
horse. "It nearly overturned them to-day." "The servant is certain 
an accident must happen." "He must really leave a kind employer, if 
that horse is to be kept." The job master at length is sent for ; of course 
he is deeply pained ; but, to oblige Lady Everard, he most reluctantly 
consents to receive back a vigorous young horse, and agrees to supply 
its place with a debilitated cripple, which has but recently left a loose 
box in some veterinary establishment. 

One hundred and fifty pounds may appear to be a heavy sum to pay 
annually for the use of a single pair of horses ; but the agreement is not 
strictly of this nature. The job master contracts to keep a carriage 
horsed for one year, and to feed the animais while so engaged. To do 
this properly will, on some years, require the services of four or five 
horses. The job master also agrees to take back all sick quadrupeds, 
and to pay for all necessary treatment, as well as to put up with every 
kind of unavoidable accident. In London, moreover, all Cleveland bays 
are expected to possess high action. Such a form of stepping soon 
disables the feet; while the bearing-rein speedily renders the animals 
"roarers." 

These evils are, generally, confirmed before the advent of the sixth 
birthday ; thus, few of the quadrupeds live to be discarded, — in proof of 
which, Cleveland bays are not to be generally seen upon the cab rank : 
very rarely is this favorite of fashion to be encountered performing any 
of the lower grades of equine service. 

With these creatures the London dealer does not habitually meddle; 
neither does he pretend to regularly trade with racing stock, although it 
is not unusual to meet in his stables some thorough-bred which was at 
its birth entered for the Derby. These bloods, however, are always 
"weeds;" or, in plain language, they are quadrupeds which have been 
rejected by the trainer as worthless. Their bodies are short, and lack 
substance; their chests are narrow; while their long legs are deficient 
in bone and in tendon. Their quarters are mean, and their withers low. 
One or two of this kind stand in the stalls of most dealers. They are 
pretty and graceful, being agile and light ; but, when shown to a cus- 
tomer, they usually stand upon slightly rising ground, which may "acci- 
dentally''^ give to them an extra half hand of height; for such specimens 
of horse flesh are all of stunted growth. 

Hunters are not, as a rule, to be bought in London; nor does the 
term, in strictness, imply any particular breed. Animals in a condition 

24 



370 



HORSE DEALERS. 



for the cliase must generally be sought in the neighborhood of the various 
"meets." Nevertheless, many a stout horse, which would make an ad- 
mirable hunter, is to be often bought of a London dealer. The hand- 
some nag, the showy brougham horse, the spanking trotter, the pretty 
May bird, etc. — in short, all such quadrupeds as ladies admire, and as 
gentlemen love to exhibit during "the season," may be met with in every 
regularly-appointed yard. 




When before a dealer, if the gentleman is no judge of a horse, or has 
no confidence in his own opinion, he should not attempt to be thought 
wise on such subjects. The salesman may not stare at the purchaser; 
indeed, the trader may appear impressed with an overwhelming idea of 
the customer's importance, as he humbly asks a question and submis- 
sively waits a reply. But, long before the first animal has been run out, 
he will accurately have taken the measurement of his patron. The man 
will know the limits of his visitor's equestrian attainments as perfectly 
as though they had been companions from the hour of birth. 

Never demand a warranty. Such things are only temptations to take 
proceedings. They may influence a jury ; but the plaintiff", frequently, 
only recovers a loss. The verdict is often unjustly given against a 
dealer whom a gentleman drags into court ; but private or extra costs 
generally consume more than the money which marks the difference 
between a legally sound and a tolerably serviceable quadruped. All 
dealers are not, in attorney's phraseology, "worth powder and shot." 



HORSE DEALERS. 



371 



Rumors about law may render the tradesman's creditors pressing ; while 
the certainty of loss may induce a man to be somewhat careless in his 
expenditure. Should failure anticipate the trial, the plaintiff will have 
to pay his own expenses; for, under such circumstances, a verdict is 
simply so many recorded words, awarding nothing ! 

Nor is the seller always to blame. All dealers are not positive judges 
of soundness. Moreover, soundness is often variable. An animal may 
be sound in the morning, unsound at noon, and sound again at night. 
Life is fixed to no one condition. A man may be well when he rises, 
he may distraught before mid-day, and nevertheless may be quite hearty 
at eve. Horses are subject to temporary influences, like those which 
affect their masters. But society will regard horses and saucepans only 
as articles of use. A wide difference divides the animate from the inani- 
mate ; but, notwithstanding the advance of education, mankind have yet 
to observe in their behavior those broad distinctions which nature has 
instituted throughout creation. 




'ANT dlNTLEMAN AS BEALLT WANTED A SOUND AND SERVICEABLE BROCOnAM HORSE, I- 
' WELL I TOD MAT SEND HIM TO FIELD'S— AND GET HIM EXAMINED." 



It is the safer and the better plan for a gentleman not to bother about 
soundness. To keep his ideas fixed upon the horses only to discover 



3t2 HORSE DEALERS. 

whether these are equal to his desires. He sees a horse run up and 
down the ride ; observes its manner of going ; notes its make, shape, 
and height ; remarks its color ; ascertains the price, and roughly esti- 
mates its qualities. But he had better not finger the animal, or attempt 
to investigate matters which concern more than his personal approval. 
Having seen these things, when the dealer begins to talk, he had better 
turn upon his heel, and do no more than order the quadruped to be taken 
to the veterinary surgeon who may be honored with his confidence. 

The horse dealer generally feels his opportunity has opened when the 
gentleman meddles with matters which he does not fully comprehend ; 
and very few gentlemen are qualified to act as veterinary surgeons. By 
adhering to the above plan, the purchaser is the more likely to please 
himself by his selection, and is certainly less likely to be imposed upon. 
The attention is steadily fixed upon the individual points of recommenda- 
tion, and the mind refuses to enter upon scientific questions concerning 
which the non-professional man cannot be instructed. 

The examination being passed, before the money is paid the quad- 
ruped is either saddled or harnessed, and is tried by the contemplating 
purchaser. When mounted upon or when sitting behind a strange 
horse, no person should indulge any attempt at display. The object 
being to ascertain the acquirements of the steed, the rider should allow 
free scope to its humors, and should encourage its confidence. Employ 
neither whip nor spur. Reject such articles, if they are ofi'ered. A 
good animal will necessitate no coercion; but severity may, possibly, 
disguise either good or bad qualities. Should chastisement be impera- 
tive, refuse to administer it; but reject a sluggish animal. Allow the 
reins to be almost loose : let the creature go its own pace, and take its 
own road : watch every movement, however, and carry the bridle hand 
ready to check or to support, should either become necessary. 

A lively and desirable nag should answer to the voice. Often the 
intention will be comprehended, when no sound is uttered. There is a 
speedy and mysterious freemasonry soon established between an intelli- 
gent nag and a proficient equestrian. This, it is desirable, should be 
developed. "When the rider or driver is seated, he should reject all 
further service from the groom. Permit the horse to walk, trot, canter, 
gallop or bolt out of the yard : should it go quietly, watch its head and 
ears as it passes through the gateway. Many young quadrupeds will 
be alarmed during such a passage; some will evince their feeling by 
very demonstrative behavior. Therefore, allow no man to hold the 
rein, and, under a pretense of attention to the gentleman, give confi- 
dence to the nag, now controlled by a strange master. 

Should the first trial not answer expectation, the treaty ought not 



HORSE DEALERS. 313 

therefore to be abruptly broken off. Many a promising and a valuable 
horse is thus cast upon the dealer's hands, the estimable qualities 0/ 
which a little patience would have made apparent. But a good horse 
may require to be educated, before it will carry a certain master as he 
desires ; this reason forms an almost unsurmountable objection to any 
conclusion being just, which is based upon a solitary trial. Most 
dealers, if they know the animal should suit, will grant a fortnight's 
further acquaintance, before the bargain is concluded. The terms gener- 
ally are, that if the sale is broken off, then the gentleman pays for the 
services he has engrossed : should the treaty be ratified, then the pur- 
chase money covers all demands, the purchaser paying only for the 
provender consumed during his period of hesitation. 

In every horse transaction, treat the tradesman with consideration. 
Many gentlemen, when speaking to a dealer, assume a familiarity which 
is an impertinent, and not unseldom proves to be an expensive, affecta- 
tion. Others adopt a superciliousness which is very offensive and rather 
dangerous; for, while the customer is supporting a foreign behavior, 
the dealer may be humoring the whim, and covertly flattering, though 
watching his opportunity for revenge. Above all things never lose your 
temper, or by your language violate the rules of decency; as, by so 
doing, you descend to a level where you are certain to be mastered. 
These cautions must be observed during personal intercourse. With 
respect to the rest. Avoid lawyers. This is the more easily done, if 
the few directions here laid down are rigidly adopted. 

Dealers are, generally, very accommodating in their trade transactions. 
They will do anything, excepting return money ; a condition with which 
most of them are not able to comply. They will take back an animal 
which does not suit. They will allow the dissatisfied gentleman to 
walk through their stables, and to choose another horse, on the terms 
that the choosing party pays the difference of price between the nag 
which has been sent back and the steed which is afterward preferred. 
To be sure, such exchanges are apt to prove costly, and, generally, are 
prosecuted very much to the dealer's advantage. Therefore, a gentle- 
man has reason for suppressing his discontent; and may do well to 
endure, a little longer, the quadruped which originally pleased him, and 
which may turn out an estimable acquaintance after the first qualms of 
early proprietorship have subsided. 

If dealers have an aversion, it is to be bothered by the visit of a 
"greenhorn," who does not know exactly what he wants. Consequently 
everybody, before entering the premises, should ascertain his desires. 
He must not request "to see an animal fit to run in a gig, but which can 
carry saddle occasionally." He should not inquire for "a nag which he 



374 HORSE DEALERS. 

or his sister can ride." He must ask to behold a horse fit only for one 
purpose. If to be ridden, the weight of the rider should be stated, and 
the age of the equestrian is likewise desirable, as well as the habits — 
that is, whether the gentleman is old or is young, is used to the saddle, 
or is about to take horse exercise for the first time, under medical advice. 
These things are necessary, that the dealer may judge of the strength, 
the spirit, and the temper which will answer a purchaser's expectation. 

So also when a brougham horse is wanted, the weight of the vehicle 
should be given. If a harness horse is sought, it ought to be named, 
with the kind of conveyance the animal is required to pull. If a car- 
riage needs a quadruped, other than a Cleveland bay, every particular 
should be detailed, the dealer being also asked to step round and to look 
at the creature which it is desired to match. Nothing is better calcu- 
lated to win a dealer's respect than to have such points ready; for, 
though these may give some trouble to the novice, they occur as matters 
of course to the practiced proprietor. Moreover, such particulars save 
much vexation, and prevent the horses being needlessly disturbed — an 
occurrence which invariably annoys the best-tempered of tradesmen. 

When you enter a yard, never request to see "the horses." Such a 
demand is a lamentable confession. Ask to speak with the proprietor 
or with the salesman. State what you wish to obtain. Be precise, 
even to particulars ; and inquire if there is such an animal among the 
stock. The reply most probably will be negative. Then ask if the 
person you are addressing knows of such a creature, and could procure 
you an inspection. Very likely an appointment for some future day 
will be embodied in the reply given to the last interrogatory. Then you 
must retire immediately, and patiently wait the promised opportunity. 

Never be in a hurry, or exhibit any impatience, in the yard of a 
dealer. Take everything coolly, and act as though it were far from your 
desire to look at horses or to walk through stables. Greenhorns are 
always greedy concerning such particulars. Consult the master; rather 
confide in his judgment and trust to his activity, than display any forward- 
ness to encounter personal responsibility and to undergo bodily fatigue. 
Horses are numerous, and dealers are always eager to effect a sale; 
therefore be quiet and rather reserved, being conscious that, to procure 
the animal which shall exactly suit in every particular, cannot be a very 
ready, a very easy, or a very speedy affair. 

When buying, always, in regard to strength, purchase a horse rather 
above than in any degree below the purpose you have in view ; or, in 
other words, obtain an animal apparently too strong, in preference to a 
little too weak or just strong enough, for the work it is wanted to 
perform. Do this, because strength denotes value when labor has to be 



HORSE DEALERS. 3Y5 

executed; and most men are cruel judges, where the exertions of 
another's life are concerned. 

Always enter a dealer's yard prepared to pay for that which you seek ; 
for, in horses, the cheap is, to the general public, the worthless. Bone 
and muscle, united to spirit and activity, will always bring their value, 
and are the cheaper, because they will endure longer than a dozen of 
those lanky and misshapen substitutes which are disgracefully over- 
weighted in the majority of genteel broughams which traverse the 
streets of London. 

However, pay what he may, no unknown individual, walking into a 
dealer's yard, should expect to have the positive choice of all the trader's 
stock. Anything very good is never offered to a stranger, who can boast 
of no better recommendation than his banker's account. In country 
meetings, at fairs, and at public sales, the highest bidder has a better 
chance, though at these places the market is commonly forestalled ; but 
the dealer knows by experience how difficult it is to procure a prime 
piece of horse flesh. When he gets such a treasure into his hands, the 
feelings of his class will not allow him to throw away his good fortune. 
A fair equivalent or a heavy price can be everywhere obtained ; but the 
one chance of years — the beauty which is rarely seen and scarcely to be 
purchased — is always regarded as something out of the sphere of regu- 
lar business. The dealer hoards such a treasure, and hopes to behold it 
where, for a number of years, it will remain an honor to his judgment, 
and a living proof that its late master has dealings with the most ex- 
alted of England's aristocracy ! 

In this country, a good horse will always fetch its value, and that 
price includes something more than money. This is the reason why 
plain Mr. Smith, who is known to pay the highest prices, never can ex- 
hibit a vehicle so well horsed as are Her Majesty's carriages. The gen- 
tleman's animals even do not shine forth, when compared with those 
possessed by some fashionable but notoriously poor scion of nobility. 
The feelings of the dealers are opposed to Mr. Smith's ambition ; not- 
withstanding treble his money were expended, he could not be gratified 
by commanding the excellence which his superiors may purchase toler- 
ably cheap. 

There is, however, in London too much eagerness to possess a well- 
furnished stable, for a really fine animal ever to be cast upon the open 
market. The tradesman, when he sees a prime quadruped, buys it always 
with a mental determination as to the person best qualified to be the 
future proprietor. The differences between the sums paid will not, there- 
fore, fully account for the noble creatures which inhabit the stables of my 
lord, and the respectable lot which consume moneyed Mr. Smith's com. 



378 



HORSE DEALERS. 



The existence of such an influence will no doubt bo denied by most 
established dealers, as it will assuredly be abjured by all the outside 
members of the fraternity. The struggling tradesman is, however, not 
likely to be tempted by such a possession. A Yorkshire breeder watches 
his stock from the day of birth. No sooner does the practiced eye 
notice the promise of extraordinary worth, than the most liberal of Lon- 
don purchasers is invited to travel northward and to consider its probable 
value. Any trade connected with horses must therefore be of a specu- 
lative character ; and a fine foal is sometimes partly paid for before the 
first year has been attained. A kind of deposit is made, to secure the 
offer of the animal when fit for the market — the money being lost should 
the purchase not be completed, but the sum being deducted from the 
price should the dealer agree to perfect the transaction. Thus the prin- 
cipal traders incur great risks, and in return secure a legitimate power 
of selection, prior to the opening of the public market. 




CNCLOiniNG laE BEAUTY. 



When a promising colt approaches the period of publicity, the greatest 
possible care is devoted to its developments and to its education. It is 



HORSE DEALERS. 377 

not exposed to tlie common gaze. No Eastern slave merchant regards 
with greater jealousy the flower of his female flock than does the London 
dealer survey what he believes will, in his sphere, prove "the prize of 
the season." The door of its stable is constantly locked. All its re- 
quirements are profusely supplied. It is never taken abroad, save when 
fully clothed and closely hooded. Only before the earliest hour of busi- 
ness or after the gates have been shut upon the bustle of the day does 
the dealer feast his eyes upon the bare perfections of his treasured pos- 
session. The ceremony of unveiling is then slowly performed, and every 
particular is minutely examined, lest unforeseen accident should have 
interfered with the realization of equine loveliness. 

The pursuits of the dealer, therefore, are not without excitement, are 
not devoid of care, nor free from trouble. His stock-in-trade is very 
perishable, and is peculiarly exposed to deterioration. But most of these 
people seem to fatten on anxieties. They generally are a heavy, a happy- 
looking, and a corpulent race ; but, hke all people who engage in a busi- 
ness which admits of no standard of excellence but success, the estab- 
lished dealer in horses has an overwhelming notion of his own abilities. 
This is the weak point in his general character. Science is ridiculed, 
and the results of experience are despised, when either are opposed to 
the personal opinion of the yard. Consequently, few of the calling con- 
sult a veterinary surgeon. In the mysteries of disease and in the prop- 
erties of medicine they acknowledge no superior ; for the owner, com- 
monly, is the possessor of secret nostrums which he esteems to be of 
marvelous ejBScacy. 

After the gates have excluded the confusion of the street, the dealer 
usually walks through his stables, attended by his head groom. Then 
frequently such orders as the following are issued: "Jim! Get a cor- 
dial; this young thing is scouring!" "Jim! Let Bartley's bay have a 
warm mash, and shake an alterative into it." "Jim! Mind me to- 
morrow, that Clement's chestnut wants blooding — the legs are filling." 
"A pinch of diuretic would do no harm here. Jim ! Break me half a 
one from the locker !" " Jim ! Somehow, this brown youngster don't 
mend kindly. It must be some flying humors ; — prepare him for physic. " 
"As for Blossom, I'm tired of seeing her. She has eaten her head twice 
over! Well! well! Jim. "Well, give her a condition ball ; and perhaps 
some greenhorn may fancy her to-morrow." 

To dabble with danger is the last madness of conceit. Persons thus 
imprudent will not bear to be carelessly approached or slightingly ad- 
dressed. Such an infirmity is soon provoked to impertinence. The 
reader, therefore, will be only rendered more safe, who observes every 
recognized form of courtesy when treating with the dealer. This is best 



3T8 HORSE DEALERS. 

done bj avoiding that silly familiarity which must be insulting to the 
sensible man, but which the knave likes, because it affords opportunities 
for his practices. Let the gentleman keep his proper station, and the 
dealer, \Vithout being offended, will observe his. But, before the yard 
is entered, above all things it is imperative to ascertain what is desired, 
as neither civility nor compliance will be elicited by a general request 
for " a horse." When the animals are being shown, let the contemplating 
purchaser be silent. He must not allow any false notion of his eques- 
trian knowledge to betray him into a discussion or expose him to de- 
signing compliments. Keep the head cool and the attention clear. Do 
not finger the animal. Decline all invitations to feel the condition of its 
legs. Undervalue your own accomplishments, by professing not to com- 
prehend such things; and leave the premises with the understanding 
that the horse is to pass the examination of some veterinary surgeon of 
repute. 

The dealer will not submit the quadruped of known unsoundness to 
such a test ; because, in case of rejection, the property is not only de- 
teriorated, but the owner has to pay for the process which casts a taint 
upon his stables: whereas, should the examination be passed, the pur- 
chaser takes the nag and pays for the certificate which assures him of 
its value. These things being done, before the bargain is concluded 
always specify for a trial, which can alone inform the future master of 
matters most essential to his personal pleasure, but which no veterinary 
inspection could discover. It is prudent to attend to these particulars ; 
and it is folly to imagine a warranty can shelter the person who know- 
ingly disregards the security which these alone can afford. 

The customer is thus fenced in or protected on all sides. The con- 
duct of the dealer should declare the personal opinion of the man who is 
best acquainted with the animal. The professional judgment, being de- 
liberately pronounced and duly certified, guards the points where a gen- 
tleman's knowledge may be deficient ; while the trial permits the indi- 
vidual to ascertain such traits as mouth, temper, habits, step, spirit and 
mode of going. After such qualities are approved, the horse may be 
safely accepted ; and no warranty can be necessary, if the above direc- 
tions are observed. 



CHAPTER XII. 

POINTS — THEIR BELATIVE IMPORTANCE, AND WHERE TO LOOK FOR THEIR 

DEVELOPMENT. 

A GENTLEMAN, when designing to purchase a horse, should think 
about the matter, and should determine, in his own mind, the kind of 
animal he desires to obtain. The want of such definite knowledge is the 
great deficiency with the majority of would-be buyers, and is the chief 
cause of those annoyances which, ultimately, tempt too many well-dis- 
posed persons into dishonest company. 

Having settled the minutest particulars to his own satisfaction, the 
gentleman should never seek to secure a cheap article. Kji owing as 
may be the general public, horse dealers are quite up to the mark of 
popular cunning. Goodness in horse flesh is money's worth at any 
market ; and every horse dealer in London is fully sensible to the merit 
as well as to the value of all creatures in his yard. Therefore, the gen- 
tleman will best court civility and honesty by being prepared to give a 
fair price for that excellence which he is desirous of securing. 

The above maxim must be attended to, because a feeling person, when 
he buys a horse, will be sensible he is taking a new member into his 
family. No right-minded man can ever treat life as it were an inanimate 
article ; — to be accepted at his will and to be discarded at his pleasure. 
A lasting bond should, through ownership, be formed between mute 
submission and honored authority ; for man, having the right of choice, 
tacitly undertakes to shelter and to protect, as a return for willing serv- 
ice rendered. Such is the implied or natural agreement : its obligations 
ought to enforce that gentleness which should guard the inferior. 

To fit the reader for exercising a right of selection in a dealer's yard, 
is the intention of the author. The gentleman who peruses this page 
must, therefore, pardon an impertinence if, in the following descriptions, 
he is treated as one entirely ignorant of horse flesh. When all must be 
addressed, it is clearly impossible to make allowance for degrees of learn- 
ing. The most ignorant must be made to understand, and the best in- 
formed must generously overlook those discursions which, disregarding 
personal attainments, appeal to the condition of the uninitiated. To be 

(379) 



380 POINTS. 

intelligible, it will be necessary the author should point out the import- 
ance of certain structures, and explain the uses which appertain to par- 
ticular organs or parts of the animal economy. 

The skeleton is the framework of the trunk and of the limbs. The 
vertebrae are the base, toward which all the other bones concentrate, or 
from which all the other osseous parts originate. Therefore, to start 
from the commencement, we see at one end of the back-bone the skull is 
situated ; while at the other extremity the tail is pendent. The arrange- 
ment exactly accords with the system observed in every well-regulated 
vessel. The sailor who is appointed to look out, stands forward ; while 




THE SPECIAL USE OF THE HEAD, MANE, AND TAIL, 'WnEN EMPLOYED TOGETHER. 

the individual who steers is always stationed at the poop. The tail, in 
the quadruped, principally directs the course. Hence we perceive the 
folly of those people who, to gratify a whim, excise or mutilate the 
motor integrity of so important a part : thus sacrificing positive safety 
to a false notion of improved appearance. 

The animal, gazing in the direction which it desires to proceed upon, 
inclines the body toward that point ; while the tail, being likewise moved 
in an opposite course, sways the trunk into the proper ti'ack. The 
flowing hair, operated upon by the wind, gently favors the inclination. 
By understanding this, the reader will comprehend the reason why a 
short tail is rarely compatible with perfect safety. The appendage, 
which mankind regard as chiefly of service to switch away the flies, 
therefore has a higher and far more important function assigned to it. 



POINTS. 381 

The want of alacrity in avoiding clanger is justly esteemed a great 
defect; but what right had man to complain of his dumb companion's 
tardiness, when, to gratify a caprice or to conform with the fashion, he 
deprived his servant of the agent by which all sudden motions were 
regulated ? Happily, however, the barbarous custom which once pre- 
vailed is now generally discarded; although docking is even at the 
present moment occasionally practiced, under a notion of improving de- 
ficient quarters, while thinning the tail and mane are commonly adopted. 

Nevertheless, the reader of any experience can hardly have failed to 
remark that, since the practice of mutilation has become less general, 
those fearful horse accidents which during the old coaching days were of 
almost hourly occurrence, have not so frequently shocked the sensibilities 
of society. 

Such a circumstance cannot be accounted for by the smaller number 
of animals at present retained for private use. It is well ascertained 
that railways, which it was originally supposed would prove detrimental 
to the breed of horses, have had a decidedly opposite tendency, the ani- 
mals being about twice as numerous as they were during any previous 
period. Thus, with more universal distribution, greater security has 
been attained ; and we perceive, in general operation, only the one cause 
to which present security can be assigned. Masters are not much more 
prudent now than they were formerly ; while fast coaches were not the 
sole causes of the catastrophes of our fathers' days; neither did such 
vehicles start at every hour nor travel upon every road. 

The turning or guiding power having been pointed out, the attention 
must next be directed to the region where all strength centers, and from 
which all ability for motion proceeds. 




THE BACK OP THE HORSE, AS SEEN FKOM ABOVE. 

When the reader has been riding in any vehicle and looking down 
upon the spine of the horse, he can hardly have failed to remark that the 
widest portion of the body was the prominence of the hip-bones. The 
posterior parts, or those behind the projections, are not continuous of 
size; but they nevertheless are far more bulky and altogether more 
fleshy than any of the forward surfaces of the body. Flesh is only 
another term for muscle ; consequently where flesh is most conspicuous, 
strength most resides. The muscles of the hind limbs spring from a 



382 POINTS. 

large bone, variously named in common parlance as the haunch-bone or 
the pelvic-bone. It is also spoken of by anatomists as the os innomi- 
nata. This large bone joins the spine at the hips, and thus lends sup- 
port to the posterior region. But the vertebrae, immediately before the 
hips, are aided by no such accessory. The loins stand alone, or are 
placed entirely without support. This part of the body merely consists 
of certain bones, over which and under which run thick layers or solid 
masses of muscular fiber. 




THE BACK-BONE OF THE HORSE, 



A thorough comprehension of the osseous weakness apparent in the 
skeleton of the loins must convince the reader of the absolute necessity 
which exists for some compensating agency, so as to fit the back for its 
burden. The loins therefore should be bulky or muscular. They can- 
not be too large ; but may easily be the reverse. Small loins or weakly 
loins admit of no compensation. The author does not remember an 
instance where such a formation was not associated with mean quarters ; 
whereas he does not recollect a case where size, in this region, was not 
evidence of general strength and of remarkable vigor. The position of 
the part is peculiar. It is intermediate and lies between the haunches, 
which are the propelling powers, and the thorax, which region is formed 
to endure, to support, or to uphold what the back carries. All inter- 
mediate structures demand strength; because such a position exposes 
the part to the full impulse of adjacent force, its office being simply to 
transmit that impetus which it directly receives. Accordingly, the 
development of the loins, both in man and in horse, may be cited as the 
best proof of the vital power which resides within the frame. 

The loins, to evidence the transmitting office peculiar to this region, 
receive and convey onward the propelling force of the quarters. So, 
when the body is suddenly checked, the loins have to master the first 
energy of the onward impetus, or have to endure the full violence of the 
sudden arrestation of the forward motion in both the animal and its 



POINTS. 383 

burden. In the brief but dangerous feats of leaping, galloping, etc., 
the position of the region and the duties involved by it are so obvious, 
that the author cannot presume to dilate upon what appears to be self- 
evident. 

Muscular loins are imperative in racers and in hunters. They should 
also characterize all saddle horses ; for it is impossible the rider should 
be safely carried unless the back be strong. The animal designed for 
light harness purposes can, perhaps, best dispense with such an essential, 
although even in that case the deficiency is very far from a recommend- 
ation; for weak loins are usually associated with a narrow chest, a 
lanky frame, and a total lack of every property which characterizes en- 
durance. 

In fact, every purchaser should first glance at this part; for here 
reside those proofs which the scientific mind and the practical judgment 
unite in esteeming. No matter what quality may be desired: be it 
strength or appearance, be it speed or endurance, breadth of loins is 
always important. Lumbar development is essential in all cases. In 
short, there is no property for the possession of which the quadruped 
can be valued that is not, more or less, and generally much more than 
in any degree less, dependent upon this portion of the frame for its 
exhibition. 




A HOLLOW-BACKED HORSE. 



The back-bone of the horse — lumbar bones and all — is often remark- 
able for very opposite developments which pervade its entire length. 
These are sinking down or curving inward, and rising up or arching 
outward. When the line declines more than usual, the form is denom- 
inated a "hollow back" or "a saddle back," and is generally supposed 



384 POINTS. 

to be indicative of dorsal debility. Animals of sucli a formation, how- 
ever, commonly are possessed of high crests, of full loins, as well as 
lofty haunches, and they generally exhibit very proud action. 

The late William Percivall, Esq., in his valuable work upon the action 
of the horse, alludes to a creature which displayed this peculiar forma- 
tion, and nevertheless was an excellent hunter. Many readers will 
remember that the once fashionable Lord Petersham used to drive a 
quadruped of this description about London. His lordship's cabriolet 
could never stop, but a crowd of admirers immediately gathered about 
it. Animals thus shaped, notwithstanding the opinions of horsemen, 
are always highly regarded by the populace, and always afford a very 
elastic seat for the rider. Judging from inquiry, and guided by the re- 
ports of experience, the author — although such a make does not warrant 
an idea of any excessive strength — ^yet inclines to think that the decision 
which condemns it as symptomatic of extraordinary debility, needs further 
confirmation before it should be universally accepted. 

Animals with hollow backs are usually conspicuous, even among the 
equine race, for many estimable qualities. They are generally very 
docile, and uncommonly good tempered. Putting the undue sinking of 
the spine out of the question, they display numerous excellent points ; 
and, even admitting all that may be said about weakness, they exhibit 
such prominent good qualities as in many occupations may be justly 
esteemed more than an equivalent for their bodily deficiency, — especially 
when employed to carry a lady's saddle. 

The very reverse of all that has been recorded above usually char- 
acterizes the "roach back." The author has hitherto found creatures 
thus made, distinguished for the absence of that power with which pre- 
judice is inclined to invest them. Such animals are to be seen feeding 
upon the commons about Essex, being the pictures of checked develop- 
ment and the representatives of heartless neglect. The offsprings of 
aged dams or colts that have been forced to submit to early labor, every 
feature testifies to the abuse which they have undergone. Quadrupeds 
equally misshapen and equally neglected may frequently be seen drag- 
ging agricultural carts through the streets of London. 

Such deformities are usually vicious and spiteful. They are capable 
of little exertion, and offer a seat of torture to the individual who is so 
unfortunate as to be mounted upon a roach back. Some years ago, the 
author chanced to dissect the body of a quadruped of this description. 
Death had not affected the upward protrusion of the spine, which re- 
tained its peculiar curve. The loins were very poor, and several of the 
lumbar bones were joined together by abnormal osseous deposit. The 
quarters were mean, the belly large, the withers low, the neck ewe- 



POINTS. 



38c 



shaped, the head big, and the legs long. In short, such horses are 
equally misshapen and mischievous. Any gentleman had better endure 
fatigue than accept such a creature for the companion of his journey. 




A BOACH-BACK£D HORSE. 

My respected friend, Mr. "Waller, informs me that he once had a " roach- 
backed" or a "hog-backed" mare which was remarkable for an ungainly 
aspect. But it had very large loins and an excellent barrel. It could 
draw a loaded gig fifty miles in one day, and, at the journey's end, go 
direct to the manger. Here malformation was compensated by the ex- 
istence of other qualities ; but the above example was not benefited by 
the "hog back," which must have interfered with its natural powers. 
The same gentleman bears testimony to an excellent hunter, of the above 
conformation, having likewise fallen under his observance. The animal, 
to be sure, used to "buck jump" its fences; or, in other words, it used 
to spring suddenly from the earth, without notice or preparation for the 
movement. It never gave the rider any warning of its intention by ris- 
ing to its leap. Therefore the loins must have been defective, although 
the animal was endowed with extraordinary power, which alone could 
have enabled it to endure the frequent repetition of so unnatural a pro- 
ceeding. However, the person who was seated, during a hard ride 
across country, on the top of a "roach back," and was indulged with 
numerous "buck jumps" during the morning's amusement, although he 
should invariably be the first in at the death, does by no means present 
to the author's mind an object deserving of any man's envy. 

25 



386 POINTS. 

Neither a long nor a short backed horse is, necessarily, desirable. All 
depends upon the strength of those muscles which support the spine ; 
though, all other points being equal, length generally provides a springy 
seat for the saddle : whereas a short back commonly possesses the greater 
endurance. A long back, having bulging loins, is, however, infinitely to 
be preferred to a short back, with deficient lumbar muscles. The mere 
extent of a part can be no absolute proof in either direction ; though, 
should a choice lie between two carcasses, supposing each to be equally 
deficient or both to be equally favored, then the short back should be 
preferred, because all increase of length necessitates a greater strain upon 
the organs of support. 

But the spine cannot be too long, supposing length to be accompanied 
by a proportionate excess of muscle ; for length and strength of course 
increase speed. The practice, common among the vulgar, of placing the 
open hand upon the upper part of the abdomen to ascertain the distance 
of the last rib from the hip-bone, is a silly custom, and can prove nothing 
but the ignorance of those by whom it is exhibited. A living body 
should be judged as a whole. One part should be viewed in its relation 
to another development. No opinion on such a subject ought to be 
formed upon any solitary test or independent development. 

When considering this portion of the subject, the author may be per- 
mitted to state, it is a disgrace to the intelligence of the present age that 
any cart should be built without springs. The weight and the uses of 
the vehicle are the reasons supposed to necessitate the custom. But 
reason perceives that the real question is, whether living thews and 
muscles shall endure the burden, or whether this shall be imposed upon 
inanimate metal? Reducing the matter to a calculation of pounds, 
shillings, and pence, — which is the cheaper ? Which is the more deli- 
cate? Which is easier to repair, or the less costly to renew? Fact 
pronounces iron to be the answer to the foregoing questions ; and sense 
also declares life has no right to be subjected to that unmitigated labor 
which Providence has provided a means to alleviate. 

The tail is a continuation from the vertebrae. Therefore there is 
reason why a stout dock or a thick root to the tail should be regarded as 
a sign of excellence ; because the part affords some evidence concerning 
the stoutness and the muscularity of the spine itself. Or, at all events, 
such testimony is the nearest approach to positive proof which circum- 
stances permit reason to obtain. Nevertheless, it allows of nothing 
stronger than an inference ; but the position of the tail is more decided. 
It should originate level with the prolonged line of the back, and should 
look the thing it is, a continuation of the spine ; for, in this position, it 
necessitates a greater length in the posterior muscles of the haunch, 



POINTS. 



381 



some of which extend from the last bone of the vertebrae almost to the 

hock. In a body whose power is dependent on contractility, of course 

length of substance favors 

the ability to shorten or 

to contract. In proof of 

this, animals with the 

tails "well set on" are 

commonly remarkable for 

speed and for activity. 

The reader will perceive 
how much the aspect of 
the quarters is governed 
by the position of the 
tail, when he inspects the 
illustration which is here 
submitted to his examina- 
tion. 

The Arab naturally 
bears the tail erect; and 
by the rapidity of its mo- 
tions, together with the 
power of the organ, an 
explanation is afforded of 
the ease and the grace with which this breed 
of horses can perform the most difficult evolu- 
tions. The tail of the English thorough-bred, 
without emphasizing the Arab trait, neverthe- 
less, by its position and its graceful carriage, 
declares the origin whence its lineage is derived. 
A rat tail is a deformity generally disguised in 
large towns. There exist a wide class of expe- 
rienced horsemen who assert they never knew 

a rat tail to spring from a bad body. Why baldness of a particular 
region should indicate general excellence, cannot be explained ; but the 
author is not prepared to quote a single known exception to this all bur 
universal prejudice, although it may be opposed to reason. 

The vast majority of quadrupeds, however, are not conspicuous either 
for the carriage or the position of the tails. The dock, in the greater 
number, is compressed between the haunches. The filthy custom of 
nicking was intended to rectify this position. A portion of the depressor 
muscle was wantonly destroyed, which of course left the opposing agent 
with uncontrolled power. Such barbarity, assuredly, made the tail stick 




CRSiNARY TAIL 



CART TAll 



388 POINTS. 

out. But it injured its utility by damaging its activity. It, moreover, 
left the situation of the organ without amendment or made it more con- 
spicuous. It was a silly practice, and is now, happily, all but discarded. 

The reader, having had his attention directed to the subject, will 
probably be surprised to notice how seldom horses have tails well set 
on to their bodies. In short, the position of the tail, if employed as a 
test for excellence, would cause the majority of quadrupeds to be re- 
jected. The tail, however, should always be observed, not as an abso- 
lute proof of the properties, but as suggestive of the breed. The cart 
horse exhibits a thick dock, which is not remarkable for activity. It has 
one peculiarity ; this is, the extent to which the coat grows backward, 
or the manner in which the origin of the long hairs is deficient near to 
the haunch. 

The head is the opposite to the tail. In the last, the spinal marrow 
is represented only by thread-like nerves. In the first, the center of all 
sense resides. The brain, with the bones that inclose it and the parts 
that surround it, constitutes no inconsiderable burden. Many structures 
aid in its support ; but the general idea that it is upheld by the verte- 
brae, is no more than a popular error. The bones of the neck rather 
prevent the muscular force dragging the head backward, or limit the 
action of those agents, than actually support any portion of the weight. 
The ease and the grace with which a head, well set on, is carried, pre- 
sents a beautiful object for contemplation ; our admiration should be 
excited by a perception that, great as the weight may be, it is so ex- 
quisitely poised as to inflict no sense of oppression upon the creature. 
The chin can, without effort, almost repose upon the chest : the nostril, 
by the mere operation of the will, can be elevated to the breeze. The 
motions are equally varied, rapid, and incessant. Each inclination is 
directed by a purpose ; and volition is exercised, without experience of 
the vast machinery by which the changes are accomplished, although 
the motions are as active as the power must be great by which they are 
directed. 

The course of the body is, as was before stated, greatly governed by 
the position of the head. To the inexperienced, the freedom of this part 
may appear of little consequence ; thus, ladies are well known to be the 
principal perpetuaters of the bearing-rein, although it has for ages been 
recognized that constant tension will destroy that sensibility of lip by 
which the course of the animal is now directed. The bit, operating 
upon a natural mouth, can sway the body during the topmost speed ; 
for by the inclination of the head is the trunk to be rapidly turned. 

It is therefore imperative, for the ease and safety of the rider or the 
driver, that the head should be well set on, and should be carried with- 



POINTS. 389 

out sensible restriction. Should the rein be held too tight and a false 
step be made, or should the foot be placed upon a rolling stone, the 
quadruped is almost certain to fall ; for the rapid motion of the head 
being impossible, it cannot be used to restore the disturbed balance. 
The nimbleness which could avoid sudden danger is destroyed by the 
fashionable want of feeling. It is a matter for surprise that the presence 
of the bearing-rein is never alluded to when gentlemen seek redress be- 
cause their vehicles have been damaged. Most horsemen, however, 
esteem the neck for its appearance, and few comprehend its utility. 

Any person can discern the difference which characterizes the necks 
here represented. The galloway in front has a well-formed neck, 
although many pretended judges would object that it is too bulky. 




THE FORM OF NLCK r.LNER^LLT INDIC\Ti,ij THL DISPl^IXION OP A HORSE. 

Bulk supposes the presence of muscle; therefore a neck, if properly 
shaped, cannot be too thick. The majority of the cervical motor agents 
extend either to the trunk or to the fore limbs. The size of the neck, 
consequently, influences other regions, and confers positive advantage of 
both strength and activity. 

A head well set on is carried in advance of the body only so far as 
may be necessary to counteract the comparative lightness of the for- 
ward structures. 

On the other hand, thinness and smallness of neck is one of the 
peculiar features of emaciation in the horse. It is always seen in the 
old and in the half-starved quadruped. Hence it may be inferred not to 
be a sign of vigor in any condition. The observation should be directed 



390 POINTS. 

to the balance, the ease, and the activity of the cervical region. As 
respects its bulk, the author never remembers to have beheld an animal 
with a neck too thick ; though, he is sorry to confess, he has witnessed 
many of man's servitors witli this part of the body most lamentably 
attenuated. 

The second horse, in the foregoing illustration, has that form of neck 
which is commonly seen upon what are called "well bred" and "good 
horses." It is not incompatible with safety of pace; but it is deficient 
iu beauty of outline or grace of carriage ; and it cannot be fully equal to 
all the uses of a well-formed neck. The chin may be lowered ; but it 
will be at the expense of an effort, and by the unscrupulous employ- 
ment of the bit or the rein. Such a resort must inflict acute torture, 
especially as this particular kind of neck is rarely accompanied by 
breadth of channel or width of space between the branches of the 
lower jaw. 

The inability to lower the head with ease, removes the eye from the 
ground, and exposes an animal to trip or to stumble, should any sudden 
inequality be present in the road. The second form is, therefore, pref- 
erable to the succeeding neck, which, though possessed of a more 
graceful crest, yet in the protrusion of the nose indicates that strain upon 
the muscular system by which progression is accomplished. No force, 
save that of mechanism, can possibly bring and hold down such a head. 
This defect exposes the animal to much sufiTering, renders it liable to 
fall, makes it very heavy in the hand, and speedily ruins the moutb 

The last horse exhibits the worst form of the group, — or it presents a 
long neck with the head pointing downward. Such an animal is never 
safe in harness ; but is totally unsuited for the saddle. Creatures thus 
formed are commonly good tempered, but sluggish. This position of 
the head should to all, save only the totally inexperienced, characterize a 
deficiency of nervous energy; and likewise indicate the cost at which 
pace is maintained, and declare the uncertainty of foot. The neck 
should never be protruded, save during the exertion of the greatest 
speed. An animal which habitually assumes this attitude, suggests 
that an ordinary effort is felt to be a mighty tax upon its capabilities. 

The following illustration exhibits a peculiarity of form which the 
author believes is confined to the heavier breed of draught horses. 
Such a neck is alone compatible with slowness of pace. It is, how- 
ever, falsely imagined to denote excessive strength. So far as thickness 
is concerned, muscle must be present, or adipose tissue must abound ; 
but in length there is a deficiency which necessarily will limit the 
amount of motor power. In justification of this opinion, may be 
quoted a well-known fact, that the huge mountains of flesh which 



POINTS. 



391 



parade the streets of London before the brewers' drays, are not remark- 
able for a power of draught, for a capability of endurance, or for any 
length of existence. 




A BULL NECK. 



The ewe-necked horse is one in which every appearance of crest is 
absent. Such a form may possess length ; but it is generally wanting 
both in depth and in substance. Animals of this formation are generally 
active, but weakly : other parts are too often characterized by a narrow- 
ness of build, which materially detracts from a capability for endurance. 




THE EWE NECK. 



The appearance is, moreover, mean ; this is usually rendered more con- 
spicuous by a thinness and a shortness of mane. The shape of the 



392 POINTS. 

neck is not, however, to be considered only as governing other organs, 
but is also to be regarded as a consequence of a prevailing absence of 
development. So may the frequent accompaniment of a vicious dispo- 
sition be viewed as the result of that feebleness which converts the 
easiest task into a mighty labor, and of that absence of beauty which 
can neither kindle the pride nor awaken the fondness of the owner. 

Certain supposed judges are greatly prejudiced in favor of a short 
neck. The characteristic is in some minds associated with the pres- 
ence of bodily strength ; but it cannot be remarkable for denoting the 
existence of such a quality, because an absence of length must abbre- 
viate the amount of muscular fiber. Shortness of neck, besides sug- 
gesting the presence of fat, and interfering with activity, unfits the 
animal for certain situations. A bull neck, although its possessor 
inhabited the most luxuriant pasture, would compel the creature to 
subsist on short commons. Nags, however long may be the legs, or 
short shall be their necks, generally manage to crop the grass, although 
to do so may cause a constant strain upon the limbs, thus counteracting 
one of those effects which the run is invariably supposed to realize. 
Below is inserted an illustration showing the artifice adopted by animals 
of this description. 




THE MANNER IN WHICH A SHORT-NECKED HORSE MANAGES TO FEED OFF THE GROUND. 



Having noticed those portions of the spinal column in which the ver- 
tebrae are not associated with other bones, or do not enter into the forma- 



POINTS. 393 

tion of compound parts, it may assist the judgment of the reader if the 
relative importance of these regions is more particularly descanted upon. 

However desirable an arched and lofty crest may be, it is not, when 
separately considered, any absolute proof of estimable properties. Con- 
joined with other points, it renders excellence more excellent ; but, alone, 
no deduction should be drawn from it. In many parts of Germany, the 
horses exhibit beautifully formed necks, bearing luxuriant manes ; but in 
other respects the quadrupeds are lanky, weak, and washy creatures. 
The dock deserves attention, although it can warrant no more than an 
inference. If it suggests that which other developments equally sup- 
port, it constitutes a valuable accessory toward a sound opinion ; but, 
by itself, it is of no importance. On the contrary, the loins are absolute 
proof: their swelling testimony may be trusted, should both neck and 
tail oppose their evidence. This portion of the body never deceives. It 
is worthy of all reliance : what it declares must be implicitly received. 
And, to many minds, it may appear the more deserving of estimation, 
because full loins are commonly accompanied by a stout dock. 

Attached to the neck is the head, which, in the horse, always be- 
speaks those changes produced by varieties of treatment and difference 
of climate. The favorite and the companion of the semi-civilized Arab 
is, by its association with its master, elevated in intelligence as in beauty. 





A LOW-BRED HORSE. A 'WELL-BRED HORSE. 

The agricultural teamster of this country exhibits, in its expression, the 
apathy with which it is regarded by its rustic attendant. These are, 
probably, the extremes of the race. That the reader may recognize the 
distinction between them, front views of both heads are above shown. 
In the Arab, the spectator can hardly fail to remark the distance by 



394 



POINTS. 



which the eyes are divided. The brow is equally characterized by its 
length as by its breadth, and constitutes no mean portion of the entire 
head. In the lowly -bred face, the region of the brain is comparatively 
small, its width presenting no obvious contrast to the other features. 
The nostrils are not only compressed, but their margins are thick; while 
the upper lip is adorned by a pair of abundant mustaches. Some animals 
the author has beheld with embellishments of this order which would not 
have disgraced the most hirsute of guardsmen. 

The head of a well-bred horse has been frequently described as form- 
ing a straight line in its forward margin, when it is contemplated from 
the side. Such an assertion is generally true ; but it must not be re- 
ceived as absolutely correct. Horses have been imported from Arabia 
with the craniums and the frontal sinuses considerably enlarged. Such 
a pecuHarity is not esteemed a defect by the natives of the East. This 
fact is established by animals, thus characterized, having been sent to 
this country as presents for personages of exalted rank. Such develop- 
ments may not strictly accord with English notions of equine beauty; 
but the size of the case, in some measure, denotes the magnitude of that 
which it contains. A large brain can be no detriment to any animal 
which is partly prized for its intelligence. 





BULGING FRONTAL SINUSES. 



A CART nORSE, 'WITH THE ROMAN NOSE. 



Another peculiarity exhibited by a few English thorough-breds, is the 
Roman nose, or a prominence of the nasal bones. The trait is, however, 
less common in the pure Arabian blood than is the previous develop- 
ment. There is a breed of blood horses which exhibit a prominence 
of the nasal bones, or, in other words, present what is designated as 
the "Roman nose." This particular shape, however, is with the coar.ser 



POINTS. 395 

breeds far from unusual; although in animals of slow work it cannot 
be esteemed a beauty, it also,should not be condemned as a huge defect. 
The depression of the nasal point may allow less freedom to the nostril ; 
but in a creature whose kind of labor permits slow respiration to be 
employed, this constitutes no absolute objection ; while many quadru- 
peds of this formation are conspicuous for their high courage and their 
lively disposition. 

The leading or distinguishing characteristic of the thorough -bred 
horse is its superior intelligence. The stranger hardly has spoken to 
the creature, before it begins to investigate his personal appearance. It 
appears to appreciate the words addressed to it, and it responds to any 
act of kindness which may be lavished upon it. Added to this, is the 
evident neatness of its formation ; the clearness of its various features ; 
the grace as well as the lightness of its construction, united with speak- 
ing evidences of strength and of energy. The quadruped appears fit 
to be the associate of man, and almost seems upon an intellectual level 
with its master. As we contemplate the lustrous eye, and feel the rush 
of inquisitive breath, it is impossible not to credit the tales narrated of 
the creature's affection and of its generosity. We can then sympathize 
with the love of the Arab for his steed, and sensibly feel that life in 
the desert would be rendered less desolate by the presence of such a 
companion. 

Yet this elegant quadruped is cast in no arbitrary mould. Its beauty 
admits of the same variety which is conspicuous in other animated 
bodies. The ears usually are small, and approximate toward their tips ; 
but they may also be large, and the points may be even wider apart than 
the roots of the organs. Yet, in every shape, a thinness or a delicacy 
of the outer walls, a nice arrangement of the internal protecting hairs, 
together with a fineness in the investing coat, attest to the purity of the 
parental stock. 

A tribe of lop-eared thorough-breds are known to exist upon the 
English course : this peculiarity, however, is not a distinguishing mark 
of purity of blood, or a characteristic running throughout the race. The 
fall of the ear exposes the interior of the organ to the eye of the specta- 
tor : that circumstance, no doubt, suggested the removal of the hairs 
which nature placed as guards before the opening. It is now a common 
practice, with almost every groom, to singe off these hairs with the 
flame of a candle. Such an agent cannot be safely intrusted to vulgar 
hands ; probably to this foolish custom is owing the deafness which by 
horses is so frequently exhibited. Any protruding hair the scissors 
might excise ; but as regards the interior of the ear, grooms, had they 
even a slight acquaintance with physiolog}', would know that the com- 



396 



POINTS. 



mon Father was actuated by benevolence in all His ordinizations, and 
therefore hairs have their appointed uses. ^ 




GOOD AND ACTIVE EARS. LAKQE EARS. 



EARS WIDE APART. 



LOW-BRED EARS. 



With the ears no corporal excellence is connected, but with the health 
of this organ the general safety is associated ; for the acuteness of the 
animal's hearing affords no mean protection to the rider. The absolute 
quietude of the ears indicates \hat sounds are powerless to excite the 
organ. Excessive restlessness of these parts suggests that by straining 
of one sense, the animal is endeavoring to recompense the obscurity of 
another: that the vision is either lost or imperfect. A lively carriage 
of the ears expresses a sprightly temper, and generally denotes a kind 
disposition ; whereas one member constantly directed forward and the 
other backward, is a frequent sign of "vice," or of timidity in its watch- 
fulness. 

Near the ear is the seat of another special sense. Many people will 
pretend to discover the disposition of a horse by the character of the 
eyes. A restlessness of the globe, the display of any unusual quantity 
of white, and a perpetual tension on the upper lid are imagined to signify 
a "vicious" inclination; but, in reality, these traits express only the 
watchfulness of fear. Such indications are evidences of that suffering 
which has been experienced; and these traits are consonant with an 
anxiety to escape the future assaults of brutality. Despair may not be 
desirable as a companion ; but it is not, therefore, to be falsely stigma- 
tized. 

A prominent eye, expressive of repose, and not exhibiting an abund- 
ance of white, has been pronounced to be declarative of honesty, though 
certain parties have condemned it as indicative of slothfulness. A 
quickness or activity, as contradistinguished from a restlessness in the 
visual organ, is, however, to be desired. The small eye usual with the 
coarser breed of animals should be avoided, because it is generally 
accompanied by a heaviness of movement. The retracted or deep-set 
eye, which displays the organ only partially, which is somewhat angular 
in figure, and which is commonly spoken of as "a pig-eye," denotes 



POINTS. 



39T 



either weakness of the part, or, to the majority of horsemen, will suggest 
"a previous attack of specific ophthalmia. The disease, however, is not, 
in the author's opinion, hereditary, but is generated by that closeness of 
abode and that absence of ventilation to which all grooms strongly 
incline. The present writer has most frequently beheld ophthalmia in 
full and in perfect organs. 






A WATCHFUL AXD TI.IUI) EYE. AN HOMEST EYE. 



A LOW-BRED EYE. 



A DISEASED, OU Pl'j-EYE. 



Before quitting the consideration of the face, it is imperative that the 
mouth and nostrils should be alluded to. In the well-bred horse, these 
are both large, when compared with the same developments in the ani- 
mal of a coarser origin. The lips should be smooth, soft, compressed, 
and suggestive of energy ; but they should be without the smallest as- 
pect of ill temper. About them, numerous isolated and long hairs may 
be located ; but there should be no accumulation resembling a mustache, or 
bearing even a distant likeness to a beard. Such growths are commonly 
removed by the scissors of the groom ; but the palm of the hand, if 
placed against the muzzle, is certain to ascertain the truth if those things 
ever have been in existence. 





LARGE MOUTH AJfD NOSTRIL 
OF A WELL-BRED HORSE. 



SMALL MOUTH ANT) NOSTRIL THE MOUTH AND NOSTRIL OF AN OLD, 
OF A LOW-BRED HORSE. DEJECTED, WELL-BRED HORSE. 



The lowly-bred animal, being chiefly employed for slow uses, has not 
the need for those ample draughts of air which the faster speed necessi- 
tates should be rapidly respired ; nor is the mouth declarative of the 
same determination which marks the lips of the purer blood. The bit 
is scarcely ever present upon the carter's harness, nor are the mouths of 
his charges formed to retain this invention. The characteristics of low 
birth cannot be effaced from the countenance of a quadruped. Age or 



39S POINTS. 

privation cannot confound the two breeds. The thorough-bred in ruin 
is not to be mistaken for the teamster. No want, no suffering, no length 
of years can obliterate the evidence of nobility from the animal of pure 
descent. 

When purchasing a horse, it is always well to examine the angles of 
the lips. If any sign of induration is remarked, it signifies that the 
animal has suffered from the abuse of the bit. If on any limited space, 
however small, a patch of white skin is observed located upon a dark 
ground, it denotes that " once upon a time " the true skin has been re- 
moved from that place, while cicatrix now exists to apprise future pur- 
chasers of the fact. If anything like a hardened lump should be felt in 
this situation, it demonstrates that the quadruped has a hard mouth, and 
is an obstinate puller, or that it has passed through the hands of an un- 
feeling master. 

In either case, the creature is not a desirable possession. Harshness 
is not a kindly educator, nor does it beget docility of spirit in the being 
which is subjected to its exactions. A hard mouth necessitates one of 
the severest trials which can be inflicted on a horse proprietor. It is 
painful, every time a change of direction is desired, for the rider to tug 
at the reins ; such a necessity soon destroys every pleasure of the exer- 
cise. But a regular puller is always a dangerous servant. Generally it 
turns out to be a "bolter," and, before running away, will seize the bit 
between its teeth, when the driver or the rider alike is helpless. Our 
entreaty to the reader is, to turn his back upon the offer, should he ever 
be solicited to buy a horse having a damaged mouth. 

At this point it is requisite the author should review the various 
organs which, together, constitute the head. An activity equally re- 
moved from stillness and from restlessness, denotes health to be present 
in all the seats of special sense. These things are of more importance 
than at first glance is apparent, because such united testimony is the 
best security as regards the general system. It equally testifies to the 
soundness of the brain and to the healthiness of the body. When the 
animal suffers, the perceptions mostly are inactive ; when the brain is 
oppressed, the loss of sense first announces the disorder. 

These organs also deserve attention for their own sakes. Man is not 
gifted with remarkable faculties either in seeing, in hearing, or in smell- 
ing. He therefore desires such assistance as the companion of his jour- 
ney may afford. The value, consequently, of an animal is materially 
deteriorated by the loss of any of its protective powers. These, when 
all enjoyed in perfection, assist one another. When any organ is excited, 
the rest are seldom dormant. Thus when the quadruped perceives in 
the distance some obscure object, the ears are advanced and the nostrils 



POINTS. 399 

are inflated. The same general movement is remarked whenever the 
hearing catches a distant sound, or whenever the scent detects a novel 
odor. All are conjoined to produce one result ; therefore the loss of one 
cannot be without effect upon the uniformity of action. 

As regards the formation of the countenance, an enlarged cranium is 
no detriment; but the Roman nose sometimes interferes with the ca- 
pacity of the nostril. When it produces such a result, the peculiarity 
warrants either a reduction of price or an absolute rejection of the offered 
sale. In other respects, this make is regarded as of no importance ; but 
it certainly does not add to the appearance of the animal. Horses are 
generally prized in proportion to their beauty : nor can the author quar- 
rel with such a foundation of judgment, as, in most animals, harmony 
of figure justifies a belief that excellence of spirit also exists. 

The nostrils, however, are associated with the important function of 
respiration ; therefore these organs demand consideration, when regarded 
apart from the other senses. They admit the air which is inhaled by the 
expansion of the chest ; consequently the dimension of the nostrils al- 
lows an inference to be drawn as to the capacity of the lungs. This 
opinion, however, should be only advanced after the alteration has been 
noted between their size when at rest and their enlargement when ex- 
cited. Should no marked variation be produced by the opposite states, 
then the value of the animal is only to be considered in connection with 
slow work, as the speed must be regulated by the capability of receiving 
a quantity of vital air proportioned to the power exerted. 

After the capacity has been observed, the nature of the movements 
of the nasal openings should be noticed. Subsequent to exertion, ease 
of motion is not to be anticipated ; but nothing approaching to spas- 
modic action should be remarked. The nostrils ought to be regularly 
expanded : not to fly open with a jerk, or to suddenly enlarge their form, 
as under the influence of a gasp. A capability of dilatation, attended 
with an evenness of motion, however fast the movement may be, are 
the points which should be looked for in the nostrils of a horse, — because 
the characteristic changes attending inhalation best expose any defect in 
the respiratory apparatus ; for, by such a test, the remotest disposition 
to become a roarer, or to exhibit diseased wind, is easy of detection. 

Connected with the head, every horseman comprehends how much 
width of channel, or of space between the branches of the lower jaw, is 
to be desired. The reason why such a form is highly prized in an 
animal of fleetness or of exertion, is because such an opening allows room 
for the varied movements necessary for the offices of respiration, or for 
the change of position imperative in the larynx, which is located near to 
or within the hollow thus provided. Clear space is of course impera- 



400 



POINTS. 



tive, wherever rapidity of movement has to be executed. There is also 
another thing equally desirable. That addition is a full development of 
the motor power which affects the larynx. 




•mOE AND NAREOW CHANNELS. 



This last point has never been sought for, although the writer has seen 
it prominently exhibited in some animals. Wherever it has been beheld, 
the author has confidently pronounced the high character of the quad- 
ruped; he has not, in a single instance, been mistaken in his conclusion. 
The muscles which are attached to the spur process of os hyoides, or to 
the bone which regulates the movement of the larynx, when well de- 
veloped, are discernible in the living animal. They form a kind of indi- 
cation as though nature was half disposed to invest the animal with a 




PROMINENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE HTOIDEAL MUSCLES. 



miniature dew-lap. They lead the muscles of the neck perceptibly more 
forward than these agents run in the majority of horses, and in some 
specimens they may, with a little manipulation, be traced almost to the 
point of their insertion. 



POINTS. 401 

The muscles last alluded to all originate from the trunk, the more for- 
ward cavity of which is known as the chest. There is much dispute 
concerning the best form of the horse's thorax ; but such a question can 
only be decided by the uses to which the animal is to be subservient. 
For instance, below is inserted the illustration of a cart horse with an 
almost circular chest. Such a form permits the presence of a huge pair 
of lungs, and favors the increase of weight. 




A CART HORSE. 



Sufficient oxygen is always present to convert the starch or the sugar 
of the food into fat : during slow work, enough of atmosphere to vitalize 
the blood must be inhaled, nor is excessive exertion calculated to mate- 
rially increase the amount. Where weight is more desired than activity, 
where propulsion is to be chiefly accomplished by bringing the heavy 
carcass to bear against the collar, such a make is admirable. All creat- 
ures, in which speed is not required, should possess circular chests ; for 
by such a shape the quadrupeds are adapted for the accumulation of fat, 
and for the performance of slow, of continuous, or of laborious work. 

There are, however, numerous animals which are required to possess 
capability for a "burst;" for the acme of which phrase is embodied in 
the rush or the closing struggle of the race-course. The creature of 
speed, therefore, should exhibit rather the deep than the round thorax ; 
for fat is not desired on such an animal. The deep cavity, moreover, 
admits of an expansibility which is imperative during the extremity of 
muscular exertion. It is, however, sad to see well-bred animals in and 
about the metropolis forced to pull carts, for which employment nature 
has unfitted them. They possess no weight of body with which to move 
the load. The burden must be propelled by the almost unaided power 

26 



402 



POINTS. 



of the muscles. The limbs, strained by the constant necessity of the 
position, soon become crippled, while excessive labor causes the flesh to 
waste ; hence the miserable objects which are sometimes witnessed toil- 
ing along the thoroughfares of the metropolis, 

DIAGRAMS, ILLUSTRATING THE DIFFERENT CAPACITIES OF THE OPPOSITE FORMATION'S OF THORAX. 








r B '1 'I ' ^ 




//'M- I 







THE THOBAZ OF A CART HORSE. 



THE THORAX OP A BLOOD HORSE. 



A A. The capacities of the two chests in the quiet condition. 

B B, B B. The limits of expansibility in each, when excited. 

cc,cc. The outside of the coat in the quiet condition. 

dd,dd. The surface of the body in the excited state. 



To render the above facts comprehensible to the generality of readers, 
let it be granted that the lungs of the cart and of the blood horse, when 
expanded to the uttermost, would occupy the like space. When not ex- 
cited, or both being of the normal size, the respiratory apparatus of the 
coarser breed is by far the larger of the two. In the passive condition, 
the heavy quadruped inhales much more oxygen than is needed to vivify 
the blood. The excess is, therefore, appropriated by the food and nour- 
ishes the frame ; hence dray horses have a tendency to become fat. On 
the contrary, in the ordinary mood, the lungs of the thorough-bred re- 
ceive scarcely more air than is required to uphold vitality; therefore 
this kind of quadruped exhibits, as a general rule, no vast disposition 
toward excessive obesity. 

During all quickened movements, however, the action of the lungs 
and the speed of the circulation are much increased. The impetus 
given by motion to the vital fluid causes the detention in the lungs to 



POINTS. 403 

be of a comparatively brief duration. The period of change is shortened ; 
at the same time a larger absorption of the vivifying agent becomes 
absolutely imperative. The greater depth of chest in the racer admits 
of a greater change of dimension ; then air is inhaled equal to the ra- 
pidity of movement. The pace, therefore, can be maintained with com- 
parative ease. But the round form of thorax allows of little enlargement : 
the demands made by exertion cannot be complied with, and the heavy 
horse, when hurried, is consequently soon exhausted. 

It is not, therefore, the size or dimension of its thorax which fits the 
steed to the purposes of fleetness. That quality depends on the adapt- 
ability of the cavity to the exigencies of excitement; for such purposes, 
the quadruped with a round chest is not to be preferred. At present 
there is no instrument by which the motions of the horse's ribs can be 
accurately ascertained : thus the reader is forced to guess at an altera- 
tion which cannot, under existing circumstances, be regarded with that 
confidence which is inspired by the knowledge of a fact. A quarter of 
an inch between the enlargement of the ribs in different animals (sup- 
posing the other points equal) should more than determine the winner 
of a race, since the change which takes place in the blood regulates the 
other properties of vitality. 

The belly and the chest are distinct cavities, although there is com- 
munication between the organs of each. Thus the great artery which 
originates at the heart, travels into the abdomen ; while the veins which 
traverse the larger division also penetrate the thorax. Nevertheless, 
the contents and the uses of each space are generally distinct. The 
principal agents of the more forward cavity are the heart and the lungs, 
the thorax being chiefly sacred to the purposes of respiration and of cir- 
culation. The liver, the stomach, the spleen, and the intestines are 
inclosed within the abdomen, the function of this region being engrossed 
by the offices of appropriation or by those of nutrition. 

Most judges admire the horse which presents a belly apparently well 
filled by its contents. Certainly this appears to be the soundest of the 
many prejudices which appertain to horse flesh. The shape of the thorax 
must, in no unimportant degree, regulate that of the abdomen, the two 
cavities being only parted by a fleshy screen denominated the diaphragm. 
The herring-gutted quadruped is commonly as deficient in the respiratory 
as it is wanting in the nutritive functions. Of course this rule is not 
absolute ; but a capacious thorax is required to counteract any absence 
in the process of nutrition. The animal which rapidly narrows toward 
the flank generally purges upon work, is commonly of a washy consti- 
tution, and usually possesses a bad appetite. Such a retainer will fre- 
quently spoil more fodder than it will consume ; while the little eaten 



404 



POINTS. 



shall afford less support than the like amount would yield unto the 
majority of stabled animals. 




HERRINQ-QUTTED HORSE. 



Horses of the above conformation are soon found wanting in other 
respects. Narrowing toward the flank being accompanied with deficient 
quarters, enables them to slip through their body-clothes, and renders it 
difficult to retain a saddle in its proper situation. The groom may in 
vain give extra attention to the fastenings ; the dwindling form empow- 
ers little motion to displace the tightest of girths. The saddle always 
has an inclination to glide backward ; and the rider, when such an occur- 
rence happens, must be placed in no enviable position. 




COW-BBLLIES HOBSE. 



Objection even to a greater extent is engendered by the opposite kind 
of abdomen, or by one which is known as "a cow-belly," or "a pot- 



POINTS. i05 

belly." Animals of this make always seem immatured, as though they 
had been brought into the world before the proper period, or had been 
forced to perform hard labor at too early an age : their legs are long ; 
their withers are low ; their muscles are mean ; their chests are narrow, 
and their countenances are distorted by a querulous expression. These 
unhappy creatures possess but little strength for work ; if made to travel 
fast, they are speedily blown. In the stable, they are greedy; when 
out of it, they are vicious. Many of their faults are to be attributed to 
disease, the digestive functions being invariably disordered. They are 
worthless, or are "all too feeble" for harness; while the enlarged belly, 
when favored by the motion of the limbs, renders retention of a saddle 
an utter impossibility. 

The legs of a horse, — these can hardly prove too short ; for brevity 
of limb is always an accompaniment to depth of chest and proportionably 
powerful quarters. The long leg always attests to the light carcass; 
hence the motor agency of the limbs is deficient, while the cavities of 
respiration and of nutrition are necessarily diminished. A narrow 
thorax almost enforces low withers and an upright shoulder. The bone 
of the arm, or the humerus, is pushed into an undue slant by the for- 
ward position of the blade-bone, or of the scapula. This compels the 
front leg to stand too far under the body. Such an arrangement favors 
neither beauty, speed, nor safety; in fact, it is one of the worst forms 
which the components of the frame are capable of assuming. 

The action of the shoulder-blade, during progression, is upward and 
backward, or it is drawn toward the highest processes of the withers. 
Low withers are, of course, opposed to ex- 
tended motion in such a line. The lessened 
action of the bone necessarily limits the move- 
ment of the structures which depend from it, 
or the action of the humerus is governed by 
that of the shoulder-blade. The trivial motion 
permitted by low withers, therefore, limits the 
advance of the forearm, the parts being, as it 
were, tied together. The natural carriage of 
such a malformation is with the head and neck * straight shoulder, showin<j 

THE POSITION OF THE BONES. 

protruded, so as to favor progression by strain 

upon the cervical muscles. At the same time the body inclines forward, 
which throws the limbs backward, or out of their proper situations; and 
this circumstance accounts for animals of this particular make so fre- 
quently encountering "accidents." 

The gait characteristic of an upright shoulder is very peculiar. A bad 
forehand is the most common defect witnessed in London thoroughfares. 




406 POINTS. 

In the metropolis of the world, it is indeed a rare sight to behold a car- 
riage drawn by a pair of really good animals. The quadrupeds in 
general use for such purposes are mostly faulty about the shoulders. 
The forehand is placed upon the trunk in too upright a position. The 
job master is conscious of this defect. He always endeavors to con- 
vince his patrons that such a make is advantageous, where a creature is 
designed for harness. Possibly the tradesman might succeed in per- 
suading his customers into a false belief, were not prejudice opposed to 
his suggestions. Ladies admire high action in the steeds attached to 
their vehicles; this is the kind of step which most of the horses just 
described are incapable of long exhibiting. 

Art or cruelty, however, can partially amend the faulty motion of the 
limbs. Force the head into an unnatural attitude by the unscrupulous 
employment of the bit or of the bearing-rein; retain the neck erect, 
without regard to the cramp induced, or heed of the strain cast upon the 
muscles, — and the torture, although the life be shortened and the safety 
of the owner endangered, nevertheless may occasion the feet to be raised 
during progression. This fact is illustrated in the following engraving. 




*A 



DIAGRAM, SHOWING THE NATURAL ACTION APPERTAINING TO A STRAIGHT SHOULDER, AND ALSO ILLUSTRA- 
TING THE CHANGE SOMETIMES OCCASIONED BY THE UNSCRUPULOUS EMPLOTMENT OP THE BIT OE OF THE 
BEARING-REIN. 

The natural mode of going is indicated by the letters A A ; the possible 
change of form is to be seen in the parts distinguished as B B, although 
the action there depicted certainly displays a most unusual degree of 
amendment, to induce which must shorten the existence. 



POINTS. 



m 



Any sucli improvement is always procured at a vast personal risk; 
for the head, being raised, partially throws the eyes out of use. It also 
impedes the circulation, ruins the mouth, distorts the body, and deranges 
the breathing. All these evils are inflicted to obtain the kind of pace 
which is never natural, but which closely resembles the sort of step that 
is characteristic of blindness in the horse. Few of the animals, thus 
treated, live to descend very low in the scale of equine existence. They 
mostly perish young ; but the reader may recognize them drawing the 
broughams of gentility, and too often presenting one of the cramped, 
forced, and uneasy paces which are depicted below ; for into such kinds 
of action 'Sil upon service ultimately subside. 




VEET FAULTY ACTIONS. 



On the other hand, the animal with a deep chest and with high 
withers, almost as a necessary adjunct, possesses a slanting shoulder; 
or, at all events, this probability is favored by that particular formation. 
Such an arrangement of parts must be accompanied by an upright 
position of the humerus and the advanced location of the fore limb. 
This conformation is bettered, materially, by an arched crest and a head 
"well set on." Unfortunately, these latter points are seldom encoun- 
tered, the proper disposition of the fore quarter being rarely attended 
with the last-named grace. 

Such horses, however, Stubbs, the animal painter, used to delineate. 
Either the artist was particularly fortunate in his models, or beauty has 
been sacrificed in the anxiety to breed other properties. Such horses 
appear to have been common in England when the racer was compelled 
to possess endurance, and if report be truth, the last animals exhibited 
a greater speed than their descendants can display. Hunters were for- 
merly something better than the rejected of the course ; they could show 
a beauty equal to their strength. Creatures with the forehand such as 
has been described, are not only more pleasant to contemplate, but they 
are also capable of working with far less exhaustion to the system. 



408 



POINTS. 



With a front limb of this nature, the movements of the leg are regu- 
lated by that of the shoulder. When the blade-bone is drawn upward, 
the humerus leaves its almost erect position, and assumes a forward in- 
clination. This causes the arm to be advanced, and propels the leg and 
foot. Thus the movement of a part governs the motion of the whole : 
a grace or harmony of action is the result. The various components of 
the member change their relative positions to one another without effort, 
but with evident intention ; all parts of the limb a^e simultaneously 
advanced. The work is not cast upon one set of muscles to the injury 
of another region. A well-made animal is one perfect whole, and for- 
merly was common throughout the land. People may sigh that such 
quadrupeds are now lost to the nation : this regret, however, does not 
accord with the folly that upholds the racing mania, which has engulfed 
the once-prized native breed of English horses. 





A SLANTING SnOULDEK, SHOWING THE 
POSITION OF THE BONES. 



A SLANTING SUOULDBR IN ACTION. 



The articulated skeletons which are exhibited in museums present 
but poor resemblances of the living framework as it is arranged by the 
hand of nature. In these artificial preparations, the fore limbs are 
always straight, as are the supports of a kitchen table. But contem- 
plate the living example. The positive perpendicular is never observed. 
The member abounds in gracefully swelling prominences and admirably 
poised inclines. The chest may be wide ; but the hoofs are placed close 
together. Such a necessity renders an erect line an impossibility. Try 
the same rule in another direction. Let a plummet be dropped from the 
point of the shoulder of a living and well-made animal ; it will mark the 



POINTS. 



409 



limit to which the toe is extended when the healthy horse is resting the 
limb. Such a fact proves the sheer upright form of the member to be 
an unnatural distortion and a positive impossibility. 





DIAGRAMS OF BONES WITHIN THE HORSE'S FORELEG. 



The importance of the shoulder and of the arm bone having been 
enlarged upon, there remains to direct the reader's attention toward that 
which in general acceptance constitutes the forearm, as well as the knee, 
the leg or the shin, the pastern and the foot. Where the limb quits the 
trunk, it should be characterized by muscular developments, since at this 
place resides the chief of that power by which the lower portions of 
the member are directed. The flesh should bulge forth, and cannot be 
too abundant; for a thin forearm is incompatible with goodness in a 
horse. 

The point of the elbow should be prominently emphasized, as this 
bone affords a leverage whence many influential muscles originate, and 
which some of the principal flexor agents directly operate upon. To- 
ward the knee the swelling should gradually subside, leaving upon the 
surface of the joint a broad, clean, and firm appearance. At the back 
of the knee there should stand forth, or rather should stick out, an osse- 
ous point, the size of which is of every value. Its aspect may not please 
the inexperienced fancies of the boy ; but the uses of this development 



410 



POINTS. 



are, in no little degree, governed by its magnitude. It affords a point of 
insertion to the short flexors of the limb, as well as gives shelter to the 
perforans and perforatus tendons in their passage toward the pastern 
and the foot. Its magnitude, therefore, not only favors muscular action, 
but also indicates the dimension of those important structures which this 
bone protects. 

The forearm should be long; the shin ought to be comparatively 
short. The reach depends on the first, the length of which secures an 
extra amount of motor activity. No muscles of importance are located 
upon the shin : bone and tendon are the principal components of this 
region. The part should not be absolutely straight, for such a form is 
incompatible with all idea of living beauty; but at the same time it 



INCLINATIONS OF THE PASTERNS. 





A LONG AND SLANTING PASTERN. 



A NATURAL PASTERN. 





AN UPRIGHT PASTERN. 



AN OVERSHOT PASTERN. 



ought to present no obvious inequalities or sudden enlargements. The 
bone should be compact, giving to this portion of the limb, when viewed 
from the front, almost the appearance of being deficient in bulk; but 
when regarded from the side, the lower part of the leg cannot be too 
broad ; for breadth and strength are here synonymous. 



POINTS. 411 

The above rule applies with equal stringency to both legs,^to the 
hind limb below the hock as well as the more forward member from the 
knee downward. Each should be thin, when viewed from the front. 
Neither can well be too deep, when seen from the side. Both should 
appear solid, and each should feel almost of metallic hardness. The 
pastern-joint should not present a level surface, when viewed laterally; 
and as it proceeds downward to join the foot, a graduated enlargement 
should exist. 

Much comment is usually indulged upon the horse's pastern. The 
degree in wkich this part may or may not slope, has been authoritatively 
defined. The reader will best judge of these opinions, by considering 
the purposes for which the pastern was created. Its intention is to 
endow the tread with elasticity. The fetlock of a racer, when the ani- 
mal trots, may be seen to touch the earth every time the weight rests 
upon the foot : nevertheless, the thorough-bred has, during the conten- 
tion, to endure the very excess of action. There must, therefore, be 
something erroneous in the popular judgment which connects weakness 
with the motion of this part, or no racer could ever reach the goal ; and 
if a quadruped does occasionally break down, the likelihood of such a 
misfortune is not regulated or to be foretold by the pliability of the 
pastern-joint. However, that the reader may estimate the value of the 
prejudice, various pasterns, designed according to the general phrase- 
ology, have been submitted to his inspection. 

To enable the purchaser to arrive at a sound decision, it is necessary 
to state that the inclination of this region is governed by the major 





flexor tendons which are situated underneath or behind them. Their 
slanting, therefore, is regulated by no peculiarity in the forms of the 
bones themselves, but is controlled by and dependent upon the condition 
of another structure. A short, upright pastern, if it can bear any evi- 
dence at all, testifies to a stubborn and unyielding state of the great 



412 POINTS. 

flexor muscles, the weight being then thrown upon the osseous supports. 
The play of the pastern denotes nothing more than the healthy elasticity 
of the flesh upon the tendon proper to which the osseous structures 
repose. The bones have no motor power belonging to themselves. The 
upright and the overshot pastern suggest no change in the more solid 
frame ; but such alterations prove that excessive work has strained the 
great flexors of the limb, and destroyed the inherent property of elasticity 
with which every muscle is endowed by nature. The burden being then 
supported by an osseous pillar instead of an elastic band, of course jar 
or concussion ensues upon the abnormal change. 

Thus, alteration in the natural position of an oblique bone is of great 
importance to a purchaser ; and to judge properly of the pastern-joint, the 
substance swelling forth beneath the elbow must be regarded. Should 
this portion of the body be mean or wanting in development, hard work 
will probably induce it to become rigid, or labor may, ultimately, cause 
the pastern-joint to shoot forward and out of its proper situation. 

The flexor tendon likewise influences another part. The perforans is 
inserted into the sole of the coffin-bone, or into the bone of the foot. 
The direction in which the toes point is, therefore, regulated by a sub- 
stance so far distant that the attempt to connect the two organs may, to 
the uninformed mind, seem somewhat ridiculous. Yet, the statement 
being correct, the fact renders the position of the elbow of more import- 
ance; for according to the situation of that bone the hoofs will be 
directed. Thus, an ulna or an elbow which is drawn toward the trunk 
will be attended with a toe inclined outward. When the bone turns 
from the body, the forward portion of the hoof is directed inward. 
When the framework is properly constructed, the hoofs point forward ; 
for horses' hoofs are liable to those derangements which the human foot 
exhibits, and generally with like results. Only, in man, striking one 
leg against the other, during progression, is not attended with the unfor- 
tunate consequences which such an occurrence often will induce when 
this accident happens to the quadruped. 

INCLINATIONS AND DEFECTS OP THE FEET, A8 WELL AS SAMPLES OF ODD HOOFS. 




HOOFS POINTINO FORWARD. HOOFS POINTINQ OUTWARD. HOOFS POINTING INWAP.D. 

By the pasterns recently exhibited it will have been observed that the 
inclination of the bones influences the slant of the hoof. The two 



POINTS. 41S 

structures are so connected one with the other that neither can be 
independent, for the direction of the pastern, of course, determines the 
nature of the weight imposed upon the foot. Thus, should the foot re- 
ceive more than a normal pressure, this circumstance, by throwing the 
weight upon the bones, occasions the muscles to contract, and produces 
upright or overshot fetlock-joint. Nevertheless, the hoof is operated 
upon by other agency. Diseased action will also interfere with the 
growth of its outward covering. The member may, under such injurious 
excitement, when long continued, eventually become deformed. 

The place of birth also influences the horn. Thus, a quadruped brought 
up on the fens of Lincolnshire, generally displays a flat sole, a weak, a 
low, and a slanting crust. The horse whose native land is dry or sandy, 
mostly exhibits the hoof high in the quarter and thick in its incasement. 
The creature with feet of the intermediate sort, which a few years ago 
were esteemed the model form, is generally the inhabitant of a moist, 
but not of a wet district. The horn, therefore, is indirect evidence of 
the rearing ; and the author has now to consider how far its condition 
can, by itself, be regarded as a positive proof of any other fact. 

There is one defect not generally observed, but which should always 
be studied in every examination of the feet. It may surprise the reader, 
when the author declares it to be very far from an uncommon circum- 
stance to encounter a horse with odd hoofs, or with feet of difierent sizes. 
Such a peculiarity is totally independent of the defective inclination of 
the toes, and may be seen in horn of any possible condition, or in feet 
of any variety of form. 

An animal becomes lame in the foot. If the lameness is removed in 
reasonable time, the affection disappears, and leaves no trace behind it. 
But let it continue for months, and during such a period the sufferer will 
throw little or no weight upon the diseased member. The part will be 
rested. The purpose or function of the organ will be counteracted by 
the will of the animal. The consequence of long disuse will be a pro- 
portionate decrease in size. Upon recovery, the loss of bulk is seldom 
restored; for if the foot is then employed, so also is the sound one; and 
the action being equal, of course it does not particularly affect one ex- 
tremity, but operates on both alike. 

The difference in the feet may not be so startling as to enforce atten- 
tion to the deformity. It is seldom of this nature. Most probably it 
will require some discrimination to detect it. In the last engraving, the 
author endeavored to depict the defect as it was generally exhibited. 
None of the hoofs there delineated positively match, though very prob- 
ably the reader had not remarked their differences. However, the 
slightest disagreement is an accepted proof that disease has been pres- 



*14 POINTS. 

ent, — at what time, whether recently or long ago, of what nature, whether 
structural or functional, the examiner cannot tell : he, however, assumes 
lameness has existed, has endured for some period, and he fears that the 
organ which has been afflicted may retain a liability to repeated visita- 
tions of a similar misfortune. 

The so-called model foot is very liable to change, and not less likely 
to exhibit disease. It is very pretty to look at ; but it does not, as a 
rule, undergo much work without alteration. This opinion, however, 
must be regarded only as announcing a general law ; for though the in- 
telligent Mr. Bracy Clarke puts forth engravings illustrative of the effects 
which work produces upon the model foot, nevertheless the writer of the 
present volume has seen hoofs of this description which have, without 
apparent injury, endured constant shoeing, as well as perpetual battering 
upon the dreaded London pavement. 

The slanting crust, weak heels, and low soles are, however, not to be 
commended. These are among the worst points which the equine form 
can present, and they are too commonly the forerunners of sad internal 
disease, as ossified cartilages, sand crack, pumice foot, etc. 

After long reflection, the author must express a preference for the high 
or the stubborn hoof. When doing this, he is consciously opposing his 
unsupported opinion against the firmly and repeatedly expressed judg- 
ment of his professional brethren. He therefore can ask no man to 
agree with his decision ; but he humbly requests the reader to peruse 
the grounds of his conviction, before hastily condemning its declaration. 

The horse is a native of a dry and an arid soil. Such a region in- 
duces that which the inhabitants of this country stigmatize as an excess 
of horn or an abnormally high sole. This kind of hoof therefore would 
appear to be natural to the animal : at all events, such a foot must have 
been general before the invention of iron shoes. Moreover, when the 
immense weight of the creature's carcass is considered, and the manner 
in which bearing is increased by speed is also properly regarded, a 
necessity for the stoutest hoof must be fully apparent. 

In addition to the above inferences, the author may advance his own 
observation, carefully made through a number of years : that all animals 
exhibiting strong crusts are not, necessarily, cripples; but that the 
creature with such a development of horn is in consequence less, infi- 
nitely less, liable to pedal derangements. The contrary conclusion has 
been upheld, because most men thought the excess of horn must check 
expansion, and also severely pinch the internal structures. With regai'd 
to the last deduction, all outward developments are produced by and are 
governed by the inward organs which these shelter. The secreting 
member may be soft, and the secreted substance may be hard ; still, by 



POINTS. 415 

a wise provision of nature, the tender structure rules the insensitive 
material which it produces. Therefore the horn cannot press upon or 
pinch the internal portions of the foot, any more than the skull can com- 
press the healthy brain which it protects. 

Then as to the supposed want of expansibility. The hoof may appear 
stubborn when between the human fingers ; but while supporting the 
body of a horse, it is exposed to the operation of a force altogether 
greater than any which man is able to exert. The question therefore is 
not whether the hoof is ver}^ yielding, but whether it is so obdurate as 
to resist the huge weight of the animal when aiding the mechanical force 
of speed and the vital action of muscular power. 

The author, however, while making the above declaration, supposes 
form to be united with stoutness. Where the heels have become "wired 
in," and the crust has assumed the upright figure, the internal structures 
must be in an altered condition, and the points of bearing for the different 
portions of the limb must be entirely changed. The quarters in the last 
kind of foot are, frequently, remarkably stubborn. They are rather in- 
clined to crack than to expand. Such parts will not, by their innate 
elasticity, fly inward on the leg being raised from the ground, and thus 
regulate the amount of blood which shall be poured into the hoof; 
neither will they expand when the weight is cast upon the foot, and thus 
allow free egress to the current which is violently expelled in consequence 
of the superimposed burden driving the fluid upward. 

The upright hoof and narrow heels are, generally, all but unyielding. 
They have lost their natural function, and the harmony of the whole is 
destroyed. In consequence, the blood, instead of being expelled from 
the hoof, cannot escape from the pressure of the bony structures. The 
vessels within which the fluid circulates are not formed to sustain unin- 
jured so vast a burden. They rupture under the weight ; hence this 
peculiar form of foot is commonly accompanied with corns. Therefore, 
because corns are a disease, and because disease, being once generated, 
is not in its course or duration to be prognosticated with certainty, an 
upright hoof and wired in quarters are decided unsoundness: although 
stoutness, simply considered, is rather a recommendation than a defect. 

The author may not dwell at greater length on this portion of his sub- 
ject; but those who desire further information may with advantage con- 
sult Miles's works upon the horse's foot, which are the best, the cheapest, 
and the most lucid books upon this topic in the English language. They 
are written in a style which the most unlettered may comprehend ; but 
when recommending them, the author, in his own justification, may state 
that the views therein expressed frequently differ from those opinions 
which are contained in the present volume. 



416 POINTS. 

Looking back upon such portions of the frame as have formed the 
subject of the late remarks, there are certain points which are invariably 
present in every well-made animal. A very broad, full chest is advan- 
tageous for slow work ; but for slow work only. "Where speed or activity 
is desired, depth of thorax is indispensable ; yet the cavity should not 
be narrow or the sides flat ; while the exterior of the ribs should appar- 
ently encircle sufficient space. The general contour should, moreover, 
excite no idea of fixedness : the part should convey a notion of its capa- 
bility for easy and for rapid alteration of magnitude. 

The abdomen should neither be large nor small. The exhibition of 
either failing announces a radical defect. The belly ought rather to 
gracefully continue the line of the chest, than by its protuberance, or the 
reverse, to enforce its existence specially upon the notice of the spectator. 
All may be considered right when the form elicits no remark ; but when 
it challenges observation, the fact does not indicate that everything is as 
the purchaser could desire. 

The position and the muscularity of the shoulder are the main points 
in the forehand. "With respect to the limbs, these should leave the body 
as though they were parts of its substance. They can hardly be too 
large where they emerge from the trunk ; and the forearm can scarcely 
be too long. The knee-joint should be broad and flat ; while the bone 
which projects forth posteriorly should be well pronounced and evenly 
situated. The shin should be hard to the touch, and broad, when viewed 
laterally. The leg should seem straight and strong; the feet standing 
close together, and the toes pointing in a forward direction, rather than 
inclining to the outward or to the inward direction. 

Such is a general view of organs, all of which are of equal import- 
ance. Breathing and digestion are such vital functions, it would be 
supererogation did the author pretend to point out their importance. 
It may be otherwise with the fore limbs. Their use is not popularly 
comprehended ; those members are exposed to numerous accidents and 
liable to many diseases. This predisposition is generally explained, by 
saying they are nearer to the heart than the hind legs are, and the 
straighter form is more favorable to a descent of the arterial current 
than is the angularity of the posterior extremities ; therefore this por- 
tion of the frame is more open to acute affections. 

The facts stated are certainly correct. So is the less freedom allowed 
to the forelegs, by confinement in and fastening the head to a manger in 
a stall. Such, however, is not the whole truth. There are other causes 
in operation. The province of the fore limb is to uphold the trunk. 
Thus, at all times, the member has to support no inconsiderable burden ; 
but when that load is increased by the weight of a rider or is augmented 



POINTS. 417 

by the drag of the collar, the tug of the shafts, and the generally pend 
ent position of the head, the reader may conjecture the force with which 
the limb must be driven to the earth, especially during any rapid in- 
crease of motion. 

The continued battering to which the leg is subjected naturally ex- 
poses it to much suffering, which the comparative fixedness in the stable 
greatly aggravates. As the uses are severe, so are its afflictions painful ; 
and it hazards nothing to assert that very much of the sorrow which visits 
the animal is dependent upon the diseases or the accidents which are in- 
separable from these forward supports of the body and of the load. 

When, however, the person called upon to exercise a judgment in the 
purchase of a nag is so new to the subject as to be incapable of forming 
an opinion, there is one primary test which seldom deceives ; and upon 
the evidence thus evolved the merest tyro is fully qualified to pronounce. 
Let such a man mount the animal, and, when seated in the saddle, he 
can surely decide whether he appears to be close upon the neck or 
placed far behind upon the back. A well-made animal, by the inclina- 
tion of the shoulder and by the amplitude of the withers, forbids the 
forward location of its rider; whereas a worthless quadruped, by the 
lowness of the first dorsal spines and the upright position of the blade- 
bones, allows the rider almost to rest upon its neck — thereby, because 
of the greater weight to be supported by the front limbs, increasing the 
natural liability of the forward members to exhibit disease. 

The reason why such a formation should be specially noticed is, upon 
reflection, made apparent. The hind legs, by their greater motor power, 
always have a disposition to throw the weight upon the forward member. 
When this tendency is augmented by the burden on the back, the conse- 
quence must be a destruction of any approach to an equilibrium. 

The horse's body is, by nature, given four props — one at each corner 
of the trunk. But when a human load is lodged almost over the fore 
limb ; when the front leg is placed far behind the chest ; and when the 
head swings in advance, — all approach to a proportionate amount of 
burden is destroyed. The forward extremities then take a position 
almost in the middle of the substance, a proportionate incumbrance 
being removed from the posterior extremities. The hind members have 
less to do, and excessive duty is imposed upon the weaker organs, the 
motor machine being deprived of safety during progression. 

While on the back, the rider should ascertain the shoulders are of 
equal bulk, or have not suffered injury, and that the trunk is sufficiently 
developed to afford a secure grip for the thighs of the master. Many 
animals are so narrow as to necessitate sensible muscular exertion on 
the part of an equestrian, and thus materially to detract from the pleasure 

27 



418 



POINTS. 



of horse exercise. This matter is the more important, because stoutness 
of the body allows a fair inference to be drawn as to the substance of 
the haunches. It is true, no absolute law may therefrom be deduced ; 
but as expectation is warranted, the fact should always be remarked. 




A EIDER HATING PLENTY BEFORE HIM WHEN 
IN THE SADDLE. 



A RIDER CLOSE ON THE NECK WHEN 
IN THE SADDLE. 



The haunch is that portion of the frame upon which a capability for 
work is chiefly dependent. This region, therefore, should appear to be 
the embodiment of strength. It should not seem soft, or invite those 
pats which inexperienced horsemen are fond of administering to this 
portion of the body, but the aspect ought rather to suggest firmness and 
power ; for here resides the force which must propel the load or direct 
the bound. Always choose an animal with good haunches, and invari- 
ably regard the position of the tail ; as the situation of the dock, when 
on a line with the back-bone, denotes the greatest possible length, and 
therefore the largest amount of muscular activity to be present. 

Never purchase a horse which is recommended as fully equal to carry 
your weight ; for the dealer who asserts this is, by his interest in the 
sale, incapacitated from forming a just opinion. But ostensibly appear 
to seek a horse for a friend — never for yourself — and state the nominal 
owner to ride at least four if not six stone heavier than the would-be 
purchaser. There is a saying, that an animal will run away with too 
light a load ; but that assertion is mere nonsense. Most vicious quad- 
rupeds are weakly creatures. The powerful frame is generally united to 
an even temper. Strength does not endanger the female equestrian, 
although ladies generally are mounted upon the best-made, the strongest, 
and the most valuable steeds. Indeed, this argument is never urged, 
save when a gentleman hesitates to accept a weakly quadruped, or 



POINTS. 



419 




A COAKSE-BRED HAUNCH. 



desires to obtain the one which the dealer is not very anxious should 
be purchased. 

In illustration of this subject an engraving is inserted, which repre- 
sents better-made quarters than are commonly beheld on a native or 
coarsely-bred animal. But the reader can 
hardly fail to remark that though the devel- 
opments are not deficient in 'svidth, yet the 
general aspect rather denotes softness than 
expresses strength or suggests determination. 
The tail is well set on for this kind of quad- 
ruped ; still, the point of the rump-bone is 
not even indicated. The spectator must 
guess at its precise location, as he cannot, by 
the unaided vision, detect its exact situation. 
Bulk is not absent, yet that which should be 
its attendant is not prominent. The bones 
of the leg seem long, 'but the hocks are not remarkable for size or con- 
spicuous for -form. The limbs are not moved with that independence of 
action which gives to the step of the horse its air of resolution, but they 
are advanced as though one was timid of proceeding too far without the 
other. 

Yet, the inquirer may journey long and travel far before he will meet 
the equal of the quarters here depicted. The generality of these parts, 
on the animals of the coarser breed, are much narrower; the tail is 
seldom encountered springing from a position so near to the level of 
the spine ; while, short as the extent of the posterior muscles may 
appear in the previous illustration, these are frequently to be seen of 
more circumscribed dimensions. 

In contrast to the foregoing, the accom- 
panying engraving depicts the quarters of a 
blood horse. In this illustration, symmetry 
and beauty are equally preserved ; but, with 
these qualities, also are blended other attri- 
butes, which ennoble and elevate the object. 
Strength, power, and determination are im- 
pressed upon the image. Every muscle goes 
direct to the part on which it operates. The 
posterior line, on being traced from the dock 
to the leg, does not seem to hesitate between 
the bone of the member and the stifle-joint. 

The leg itself is thicker, but its greater substance depends upon the 
presence of muscle. The hock is cleaner, and uses of the part are better 




A THOEOUUH-liKED BAUNCH. 



420 POINTS. 

characterized. The calcis, as the backward projection is technically 
termed, stands forth prominently and affords the greater leverage for the 
motor agents to act upon. 

When the quarters of the two breeds are contrasted, the difference is 
found to be extreme ; the pervading attributes of each characterizes the 
innate qualities of the animal to which the part belonged. The distinc- 
tions which divide the two are by these members well indicated. There 
was, some time back, a loud discussion as to what kind of horse was 
best fitted for ordinary purposes. The old staging days should have 
settled such a question ; for then fast coaches found the employment of 
the nobler quadrupeds to their interest. Where slow and heavy propul- 
sion is desired, the coarser animal is infinitely to be preferred. For all 
the gentler purposes of society, the thorough-bred is, in the author's 
opinion, to be recommended. Only, these fine creatures should be prop- 
erly reared ; they ought not, as now, to be produced with all the haste 
of greed, and cast upon the general public when found unsuited to the 
purposes for which they were generated. 

It is offensive, if not painful, to hear persons speak of certain horses 
as though particular quadrupeds were created only for special uses. A 
good horse is fit for nearly every purpose ; but such an animal is gen- 
erally employed for the saddle. A thorough-bred, with lofty and well- 
developed quarters, is too valuable not to be appropriated by the race- 
course. A blood, with so much bulk and stoutness as to indicate the 
qualities of endurance rather than of speed, is always destined to be- 
come a hunter. Horses of the purer breed are supposed not well suited 
for gentlemen's hacks. Good animals of this description are only too 
valuable for common purposes ; but no crieature is, by its intelligence, its 
activity, its gracefulness or its beauty, so admirably qualified for the 
companionship of man as the noblest type of the equine race. 

The manner in which the racer trots is asserted to express the action 
which is natural to all of the thorough-breed. Before the reader agrees 
to that assertion, he should remember the trot is not a natural pace, nor 
one which the racer is broken to exhibit. Seen upon the course, the 
foot evidently moves too near the earth to clear the ruts of most Eng- 
lish highways. Yet, as there shown, the motion is not to be despised. 
During it, at each step the limbs are extended ; the reach is admirable, 
and affords a far better foundation for excellence in a hack than the 
up-and-down pounding motion which is so highly esteemed by the 
ignorant. 

The greatest possible speed, with the least possible amount of exer- 
tion, is secured by the thorough-bred trot. The ground is covered, while 
the pace is easy and pleasant to the rider. It is very opposite to that 



POINTS. 421 

which medical gentlemen occasionally recommend as a "hard-trotting 
horse." A child might sit upon the back of a well-bred steed. The 
author recollects to have only seen one animal of this description em- 
ployed as the riding companion of a gentleman. The master (a northern 
nobleman) was evidently proud of his possession ; for the hack abounded 
in energy and with fire. The life never appeared fresher in a colt ; but, 
on inspecting the teeth, the writer was pleasantly surprised to behold 
indications which denoted that at least twelve years had been passed. 
The following illustration will suggest to the inexperienced reader the 
more striking peculiarities which characterize the well-bred action. 




J^'^^^fclf^^P'^-^^^^;^^^^ 



Any quadruped is supposed suited for the collar when it displays 
points which unfit it for the saddle. A prime saddle horse, however, 
always makes the best harness animal ; only, it is considered too valu- 
able for such a purpose. There is but one law which is absolute with 
draught horses. In them, the forelegs are pardoned a few faults; but 
the hind quarters should always be powerful. That is desirable in all 
quadrupeds ; for draught of every kind it is essential ; it should never 
be overlooked, or the want of such a property ever be pardoned. 

There is another point of importance. Any gentleman purchasing a 
draught horse — no matter whether for cart, for carriage, or for phaeton 
— be it for any kind of vehicle, he should be certain, before the transfer 
is concluded, that the new possession stands high enough. Nothing 
looks worse than small horses before a tall carriage. The living power 
may be in excess — it can hardly appear too mighty — but an inch below 
the requisite size gives to the most elegant and the newest of "turn 
outs " a shabby and a mean appearance. The draught may be light ; 
the horses may not be overweighted; still, no fact or knowledge can 



422 



POINTS. 



reconcile the eye to the general effect, where animals are small for the 
machine to which they are harnessed. 

Of recent years there has been displayed a desire to infuse the East- 
ern blood into the heavier breed which is native to this country. The 
desire was commendable ; but its gratification has led only to evil. It 
has enabled the dregs of the race-course to be palmed off upon the pub- 
lic. A thin and lanky offshoot of thorough-bred stock can be of no value. 
These things should not be bought by gentlemen for any kind of service. 
The time has come, when it is simple prudence that the public should 
refuse longer to absorb the cast-offs of the stud farm. No doubt, before 
the breeding of blood stock became a general practice, the infusion of 
Eastern fire and activity was a national boon ; for a reference to engrav- 
ings of a few years back exhibits the animal suited only for a plow used 
as ladies' palfreys. The following copy from a figure, presented in the 
famous folio work by a former Duke of Newcastle, will give the reader 
some notion of the kind of horse once chosen to carry the fairest portion 
of creation in the British isles. 




lADT, HAWKINO. 



From the above illustration, which may be well supposed to embody 
the height of fashion and the cream of style shortly after the accession 
of Charles the Second, the reader can imagine the practical knowledge 



POINTS. 423 

possessed by those writers who speak of James the First as having 
greatly improved the native breed of horses, and quote the benefits 
conferred upon the national race by the more temperate but equally 
determined enthusiasm of Cromwell, operating in the same direction. 

At this place, the reader must have patience while the method of 
judging the limbs is pointed out. When the dealer exhibits an animal, 
the customer's eye always should endeavor to ascertain the bulk or sub- 
stance of the creature which he is expected to purchase. To do this, 
let the eye be directed toward the chest, to ascertain if the forelegs are 
separated by any breadth of thorax, or whether they spring from the 
body almost from the same point. This decided, a glance may be given 
to the line of the forelegs; these parts also can be viewed as the 
gentleman passes backward. Having reached the last situation, he ob- 
serves if the thighs are large and fleshy, keeping the legs well asunder ; 
also, whether the hocks are rightly placed, are huge, and are cleanly 
shaped. 

Such remarks are important, since the disposition to cut is generally 
decided by the width of the horse's trunk. Any deficiency in this re- 
spect indicates weakness, as well as declares a general unfitness for 
severe labor. This circumstance being observed, it is usual for the horse 
to be run up and down the ride. While the limbs are in motion, the 
spectator should notice the peculiarities of their carriage. A flexion of 
the front shin to the outer side warrants a belief in the existence of a 
splint. When the hind limb is not properly flexed, but the toe is allowed 
to graze the ground, it is a positive proof that the hock is disabled by 
the presence of a spavin. 

A worse evil, however, is, when the forelegs, during progression, 
crossing each other, the trot becomes a sort of "hand-over-hand" pace. 
This kind of action is accompanied by "speedy cut," or by a wound 
made upon one leg, immediately below the knee, with the shoe on the 
opposite foot. That defect justifies an instant rejection; for such a 
liability is incompatible with safety, as the blow too often brings the 
animal and its rider to the earth. The legs being close is the cause of 
"brushing" or of "cutting," — a most troublesome defect, which inflicts 
a wound considerably nearer to the ground than speedy cut. 

Before purchase, the hair on the inner side of the legs should be 
carefully examined. If a cicatrix or a bare spot is discovered near to 
the seat of cutting; if any paint or coloring matter can be detected upon 
the part; or if the hair does not lie perfectly smooth upon the place of 
injury, — have nothing to do with the animal. It is quite true that most 
fresh and nearly all young horses will cut — others strike only toward the 
end of a long journey; but it is also true that particular horses, how- 



424 



POINTS. 



ever fresh or however tired they may be, never strike or cut. The 
quadruped which a gentleman desires, is one that does not contain evi- 
dences of a liability to accident or to disease. He wishes for a sound 




AN EXAGGERATED VIEW OF A WEAK ANIMAL, WITH DANGEROUS ACTION. 



animal; and one disposed to strike certainly cannot, in the author's 
opinion, be so esteemed. Every man wants a horse for service ; but the 
creature which may at any moment receive a wound that shall incapaci- 
tate, assuredly cannot be esteemed a serviceable possession, in any 
meaning of the words. 

While examining the legs, the gentleman should also notice the shoes 
upon the different feet. If these are rusty, the fact demonstrates that 
the horse has been wearing wet swabs, and has been long stationary in 
the stable. The circumstance is suspicious. In horse dealing a justifia- 
ble suspicion is always acted upon as an established fact. If the shoes 
are of rude make and much worn, it looks badly; and though it is no 
recommendation, it justifies no inference. But if the shoes be thicker at 



POINTS, 425 

one part than at another ; if the horse, being a nag, should wear very 
high calkins ; if the toe be shortened, or one side of the metal is ob- 
viously narrowed, — it denotes precautions against clicking and against 
overreaching : the first being a most audible annoyance, which may lead 
to the forcible tearing away a fore shoe ; and the last causing a fearful* 
a terrible, and an incapacitating wound upon the heel of the foreleg. 
Also, should the toe of the hind shoe be ground down, while the heel 
exhibits no obvious wear, the fact demonstrates the existence of a 
spavin. Either clicking, overreaching, or spavin is legitimate cause for 
rejection. 

The reader, from a perusal of the foregoing remarks, will comprehend 
a few of the difficulties which beset the purchaser of a horse ; and these 
may warn him, in some measure, of the dangers that surround a person 
so engaged. The author is a veterinary surgeon, of some experience ; 
but he would be very sorry to buy a steed for himself upon his unsup- 
ported opinion. He would always have the animal examined by a pro- 
fessional man ere the purchase was concluded. How greatly, therefore, 
must the general public stand in need of such protection ! Especially 
when the known hazard of the transaction and the confusion necessarily 
accompanying a direct personal interest in the business help to confound 
the intellect and to overpower the judgment 1 

All persons complain of the roguery that is mixed up with horse 
dealing. The complaint is just; but it is not just that the public should 
vent it. It is the general abuse and the inhuman treatment to which 
animal life is subjected that renders such practices necessary. The cru- 
elty and the roguery are associated as closely as cause and effect. Let 
the provocative be discarded, and its result, of course, must cease. But 
no man should blame the conduct which his own deeds have willfully 
generated. To hurt and to injure a patient and an obedient animal is a 
positive sin, — a violation of the trust confided by the Creator to the 
creature. To defraud, in a money transaction, is simply a crime, — an 
offense committed upon the laws by man established over man. Then, 
what right has he who violates one of the ordinizations of nature, to 
point at and to sigh over the person who merely breaks a human insti- 
tution ? 

Christianity, if its benefits were exemplified in man's actions toward 
the creatures living under his dominion, would immediately operate upon 
society. The horse, under better treatment, would of course not be lia- 
ble to those injuries and accidents which roguery in the dealer merely 
endeavors to conceal. There would be no occasion for cheating when 
the creature exhibited no scar or defect which the seller was interested 
to hide or to deny. Thus one stain upon the present civilization would 



426 POINTS. 

be abolished ; for, notwithstanding the numerous assertions to the con- 
trary, the author has yet to see the man who practiced dishonesty from 
a sheer love of iniquity. 

The well-to-do may lament the immorality of the class below them ; 
but if gentility would look less leniently upon itself, probably the exhibi- 
tion of crime might be viewed as no more than the apex of a pyramid 
whose base is deeply planted in the frailties which are common to gen- 
eral society. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

BREEDING — ITS INCONSISTENCIES AND ITS DISAPPOINTMENTS. 

There are very dissimilar kind of horses produced in this country, the 
breeding of which concerns many different classes of proprietors, and all 
of which are ushered into this world with most opposite formalities; 
therefore no author may pretend he is qualified to write about every de- 
scription of animal, with any air of authority. The person, however, 
who has long thought upon the subject, and who, by education, is 
fitted to arrive at a just opinion, may reach a conclusion which, with- 
out appealing to the prejudices or interfering with the mysteries of 
any particular class, nevertheless shall, in its decision, apply with equal 
force to the entire body. 

The writer states thus much, because, though not absolutely without 
experience, he yet can put forth no pretension to be specially initiated 
into those practices and tricks which ignorant people suppose to be re- 
quisite for the essential regulation of particular affairs. Neither does he 
aspire to be esteemed a proficient in jockeyship, which the public appear 
to imagine involves everything concerning the equine race. The follow- 
ing pages are indited by an individual who, fond of the subject, and in- 
structed as a veterinarian, has now attained an age when the mind 
should be equally above the errors natural to schools and the supersti- 
tious, which appear to be inseparable from general society. 

There is one fault which is exemplified with the like strength by all 
parties who, in England, assume they understand the breeding of horses. 
Every proprietor, when so engaged, endeavors to render the mare sub- 
servient to two or to three distinct uses. All will burn the candle at 
both ends ; then the public sympathizers raise a loud exclamation be- 
cause such willful extravagance does not specially serve any economical 
or any useful purpose. Nobody dreams of propagating from an animal 
until its body has been injured and its vitality has been weakened by 
services rendered to an exacting master. The results which labor can 
impress upon a living organism may be observed emphasized upon the 
manufacturing classes of Great Britain ; but much as has been published 

(427) 



428 BREEDING. 

concerning the cruelty which man can practice on his fellow-man, such 
inhumanity cannot be compared with the torments which are, openly 
and without a sense of wrong-doing, inflicted upon the dumb existence 
that cannot plead its wrongs, and which the social code even permits to 
be maltreated. 

There may be an enactment applicable to extreme cases ; but the most 
acute anguish no statute touches. Where the law is operative, death is 
always near the extremity which mortal justice condescends to relieve. 
To prevent extraordinary agony, is not to soften the general treatment. 
No man hitherto has conceived there can be any outrage committed 
upon charity by breeding from the body which, through a life of service, 
had earned a right to rest. But most horse proprietors only "throw up " 
the animal they intend should perpetuate its race, after strains and pains 
have rendered longer life a larger misery. Work, in this land, appears 
with quadrupeds to be esteemed a necessary preparation for "the stud." 
No one in this country, famous throughout the woi'ld for its breed of 
horses, seems to be endowed with any distant conception of the age 
which fits the body for the reproduction of its kind ; but all appear to 
imagine the period is any time after the capacity for toil has diminished. 
What a comment is, by the custom, promulgated upon the Christianity 
which,, after more than eighteen hundred years of doctrine, the inhabit- 
ants of many places besides Great Britain may point to in illustration of 
their belief ! 

Bodies crippled by too early labor, or carcasses disabled by disease, 
are generally found among the breeding stud of a modern establishment. 
The foals of nearly all breeds are injured before the little creatures see 
the light ; it is, therefore, no matter for surprise that a breeding mare is, 
by the majority of farmers, esteemed to be a losing concern. In the 
case of blood stock, both sire and dam are submitted to the trainers' pro- 
cesses ere the second stage of equine babyhood has been perfected. 
Certainly where an amusement is pursued with a reckless defiance of 
economy, a little longer grace might be accorded to the animals employed 
to promote it ; or where the topmost prize is estimated not by tens but 
by thousands, it might be prudent to speculate with a little forbearance 
for such a reward. 

Has it never occurred to a nobleman, or to any gentleman, that it 
might probably be as profitable to keep the most promising foals sacred 
to breeding purposes; that, simply as a paying speculation, it might 
answer to do for the course what agriculturists have done for the land, — 
only with this difference, that whereas one desires bulk, the other should 
aim at courage, strength, and speed ? Animals, if well cared for, and 
never placed in the trainers' hands, would in all probability bring forth 



BREEDING. 429 

finer specimens of horse flesh than either their parents or their progeni- 
tors. These foals, being selected and kept apart until the sixth year, 
might generate young which should sweep the land; and a stud of 
"clippers" would, assuredly, prove a pretty private property. 

Such a plan includes much more care than is at present bestowed. 
The author well remembers, some years back, going through the straw 
yard of a "stud farm," in the depth of a severe winter. The place was 
covered with mares and their newly-born progeny. Separated only by 
a few open rails, was a flock of yearlings, whose staring coats and ragged 
manes told emphatically of exposure and of neglect. This should not 
be. The animals should, from their birth, be securely sheltered and 
liberally nurtured. He who first accomplishes this, would most probably 
convert that which at present is a hazardous speculation into a certain 
gain. 

How far a youth passed in running improves the reputation of some 
quadrupeds, is well known ; but how far it is a good preparation for the 
offices of paternity, is exemplified by most blood mares and stallions be- 
coming famous through their progeny only after years of repose have 
mitigated the chronic evils of their early life. Prejudice, however, takes 
no heed of such teaching; but maintains the absolute necessity of proving 
both, before sire or dam are allowed to perpetuate their kind. The con- 
sequence of this system is shown in the deformed and the misshapen 
dwarfs which are now ruining the once-prized native breed of English 
horses. 

A huge error also distinguishes the plan adopted by most breeders 
for the general market. The prevailing opinion discards the compact 
and close-knit female, in favor of the long-backed and loose-bellied mare, 
which is praised as a " roomy " animal. But all the supposed advantages 
of this selection are more than counterbalanced by the food which is 
consumed during the months of gestation. A grass diet promotes 
dropsy, besides necessitating so much of the poor and watery nutriment 
to be swallowed that, before the quantity requisite to sustain life can be 
eaten, more than the difl'erence of space between the shortest and the 
most expanded abdomen must be occupied. 

The stabled horse employs but a brief period of each day in feeding. 
The same animal, when turned into the field, nearly occupies both day 
and night collecting the food needed to satisfy the cravings of its appe- 
tite. This difiference of habit is not explained away by stating that in 
the stable only so much sustenance is placed before the quadruped; 
whereas, when at grass, the produce grows on every side of the creature, 
which it is always at liberty to consume. Many an animal will not 
clear the manger ; therefore the quantity of food devoured in the field is 



430 



BREEDING. 



only to bo accounted for by that opinion which justly states grass to be 
a poor and innutritions sustenance. 

The distinction which divides the two kinds of provender is, perhaps, 
best shown by the condition whidh each produces. The horse supported by 
the concentrated nourishment of the stable is commonly, while the natural 
powers are uninjured, characterized by energy, by firmness of body, and by 
fineness of limb. Whereas the quadruped is seldom long an inhabitant of 
the field ere it becomes windy, loose, flabby, dropsical ; the walls of the ab- 
domen are unnaturally distended ; the digestive canal grows thin and pal- 
lid ; the belly becomes pendulous with fluid ; while worms crowd the intes- 
tines and bots cover the lining membrane of the stomach. All this takes 
place as the consequences which generally follow the act of turning out to 
grass. The animal in the field commonly performs no work ; but when 
within the stable is rarely idle. Stables are badly victualed, badly ven- 
tilated, and almost slaughter-houses to the majority of steeds. Yet in 
the cold and humid climate of England horses cannot thrive upon ex- 
posure. Some few may thus exist in an approach to the wild condi- 
tion; but these rapidly diminish in stature and soon become very 
shaggy coated. The sheltered horse, when driven forth, grows dull and 




BLOOD MARE AXD FOAL. 



ragged; its coat stares; the spirit droops; the eye loses luster; the 
carriage gi'ows mean; the legs fill; and the outcast often experiences 



BREEDING. 



431 



such a shock to the system as ruins its utiUty. While agricultural 
teams, which are mostly pastured, are not unseldom the victims of 
numerous diseases, as broken wind, etc. 

The common country sire probably is injured from an opposite cause. 
Its food, during the early months of spring, is generally of too stimu- 
lating a nature. These creatures are to be seen led about, very much 
too fat for the proper performance of their functions. Obesity in other 
animals does not increase fruitfulness, but rather suppresses its develop- 
ment; and the author can perceive no reason why the heavier horse 
should be an exception to a rule of almost universal application. Com- 
mon stallions, as beheld at fairs and markets, are weakened in order to 
please the ignorant farmers who employ these enervated animals to per- 
petuate the thews and muscles of the mart for English horses. 




ATTENDS AT FAIES AND ON MARKET DATS. 



From dams suffering under the consequences of an exhausted youth, 
injured by the consumption of an innutritious diet, and debased by the 
absence of that care and cleanliness which a northern climate makes 
imperative, is the common breed of English horses replenished. Stal- 
lions, however, afford a convincing proof that abundant food and perfect 
rest, when unaided, will not impart vigor to a debilitated system. Few 
racers are famed for their stock, till time, which weakens the powers of 
the body, has effaced the consequences of early training. 



432 BREEDING. 

From sires groaning under accumulation of fat, and of course equally 
pining under deterioration of the muscles, enervated by sloth, excited 
by stimulants, weakened by age, or with constitutions broken by pre- 
mature exertions, are the claims of British thorough-breds at present 
maintained. 

What are the results of such a system ? Distances have to be short- 
ened. Many start; but few return, contesting the race. Ages have to 
be altered ; while boys have to assume the cap and the whip. Useless 
weights are sought to suit the failing strength ; but more animals break 
down in the training than come to the post. 

Yet racing is maintained, not for the amusement of a few, but to im- 
prove the national breed of horses! How far does it answer its purpose ? 
Let the public markets testify. A stout hack is a rarity. Such an 
animal was once all but universal. A brougham horse — one looking 
fit to pull a house — was formerly to be found in every yard. Now Lon- 
don shall be searched through before the shadow of the original can be 
encountered ; when discovered, the price demanded will be far too heavy 
for the generality of purchasers. The horse flesh of England is becom- 
ing weedy under a forced system. Poor "bloods" are everywhere 
present. In the sphere to which this breed should be confined, a few 
foals are retained ; but the majority are discarded. Many are born that 
do not return the first expense which called them into existence. Those 
rejected are to be seen drawing cabs, carrying riders, pulling carts, and 
performing every office, which is at^ once a proof of their utter want 
of value and the hollowness of the pretense which perpetuates such 
degradation. 

The glut of worthless " bloods " serves to check the raising of the other 
and the better kind of animals. The refuse of the stud farm being dis- 
posed of to the highest bidder, so far keeps down the price of common 
horses that what are termed serviceable quadrupeds have become scarce 
throughout the land which once produced them in abundance. Thus 
blood stock is contaminating the native breed of the country. Even 
with particular breeds — or with the Cleveland bays — the horses which 
dragged the cumbrous vehicles of our ancestors are lost to the present 
generation. Carriages are built lighter; but the animals, being nearly 
pure blood, lack strength and want substance. They are now a leggy, 
a washy, a soft species of creature, which gentlemen find it cheaper to 
hire than to buy ; while only by keeping a herd large enough to allow 
some to be nursed and others to rest, does any person find it profitable 
to retain these quadrupeds, even though the money paid for three years' 
loan should double the usual price given for an average pair of such poor 
and abject deformities. 



BREEDING. 433 

The consequence is, that many gentlemen drive small horses, while 
omnibus proprietors, etc. prefer the coarser breeds. People are now 
aware that the lesser size renders the purchase easier, enables the horses 
to last longer, while sickness is not only less frequent, but the consump- 
tion of fodder is altogether smaller in quantity. Carriages are now built 
of diminished height and of lighter draught ; therefore the expense of 
such a convenience is in many ways lessened. Indeed, the custom has 
become so general and has so many advantages to recommend it that 
dealers cannot afford to trade in Clevelands, the sale and the possession 
of which quadruped is, by the modern salesman, without a murmur 
relinquished to the job master. 

The entire system must be changed, or, while it continues, men should 
consult the Calendar only to learn what sire to avoid. The blood stock 
has been bred too fine : all the properties which formerly distinguished 
it are now deteriorated. As greyhounds were improved by being crossed 
by the bull-dog, so does the English racer demand the infusion of little 
"cocktail" into his lineage. The Jockey Club must not perpetuate the 
weakness of that animal which this society pretends to conserve. Dis- 
tances should be lengthened, weights increased, and ages made not to 
favor the maltreatment of mere foals. Nothing would do more to pro- 
mote an improvement in the breed of English horses than a stoical 
determination which should render useless the present abundant crop 
of "weeds." Sires should be chosen because of their stamina, their 
make, their thews, their muscles, and their general soundness. The 
quadruped should be treated naturally; not enervated by first being 
trained, and then debilitated by being pampered. 

At the same time, that excessive obesity which is remarkable in all 
existing stallions of the ordinary breeds should be avoided ; nor should 
the stimulants now in general use ever be employed. No animal should 
ever be kept in solitude and in darkness, as though its worth were de- 
pendent on the amount of mystery by which it can be surrounded. Such 
treatment is cruel; therefore it is needless. An entire horse is not, 
necessarily, a savage, though many, being spirited creatures, are made 
dangerous by the tricks played upon them and by the restraints to which 
they are needlessly subjected. In several countries emasculation is un- 
known. Though in India, native rudeness and European prejudice may 
engender ferocity, tl^e author can boast of having made friends of animals 
that had undergone no deprivation ; and the memories of such friend- 
ships are cherished with something more than the recollections of mere 
equine gentleness. 

To illustrate this subject, the author must be pardoned if he intro- 
duces an incident which occurred to himself. He was of middle age 

28 



434 BREEDING. 

when he entered as a student at the Koyal Veterinary College, His 
mind became confused by the new sort of companions which he encoun- 
tered ; by the novel objects which surrounded him ; and by the strange 
kind of knowledge he was required to master. This confusion was the 
greater, because previous habit in the writer had not rendered him 
familiar with horse flesh. An animal, therefore, was needed, so that 
reference might be made to its body for an explanation of the books 
which the pupil was expected to comprehend. At length, in the corner 
of a back yard was discovered a lonely, loose box. Inside there was a 
quadruped ; and to this place the volume was daily taken, with various 
morsels of bread or vegetable. Thus, between feeding, reading, examin- 
ing and caressing, many an afternoon was most pleasantly whiled away. 

It was necessary to indulge in certain intimate familiarities. Some- 
times to change the position of the animal, or to finger its lower extremi- 
ties. When doing this, the author possessed no jockeyship to protect 
him, neither was he conscious that any protection was necessary. He 
used to shut himself up with the companion of his studies; and the 
hours thus spent he now remembers as among the very happiest of his 
existence. 

More than a fortnight's leisure had been pleasantly occupied, when, as 
the writer was one afternoon stealing to the being which lightened the 
tedium of his studies, and was in the act of opening the door, a number 
of fellow-students detected him so engaged. " Mayhew ! Mayhew !" 
the group shouted, as with one voice, "where are you going? Don't 
open that door! 'Van Amburg' is there ! He's a kicker and a biter 1 
You'll be killed ! Don't open the door !" 

Van Amburg Avas the name of the thorough-bred racer, which had 
been sent to the College "for operation," because of its supposed ferocity. 
Yet I, a novice, had passed many an hour in its society, and assert I 
could not have desired a more gentle companion. We have often laid 
long together side ,by side ; or, as I reclined upon the straw, reading, the 
head would rest upon my shoulder, while a full stream of fragrant 
warmth would salute my cheek. Still, such a creature, so open to ad- 
vances, so grateful for little kindnesses, was a reputed savage ! Proba- 
bly its real disposition continued to be maligned, and remains now 
unknown, save only to him Avhose ignorance was made happier by a dis- 
covery of the truth. 

A training stable is not calculated to develop the true disposition of 
a high-spirited animal. A horse generally retains the character which 
is earned in such a place. When no longer running, but kept for 
"service," — boxed up and chained, debarred from all freedom of motion, 
highly fed, and teased to the performance of his office, — such a creature 



BREEDING. ' 435 

cannot be good tempered, or long continue very sound. Such usage is 
parent to many an ailment and to many a disease ; but, nevertheless, 
when surrounded by mystery, the stallion may for years continue profita- 
ble to its proprietor. It may be the means of transmitting malformation 
to its descendants ; yet the attendant who could best describe its real 
condition has, in the money which is always paid to the groom, a direct 
pecuniary interest to uphold the public ignorance. 

The thorough-bred mare fares even worse. The animal may get one 
or two feeds of corn each day; but its chief support is grass, which 
crams the viscera without satisfying the appetite or nourishing the body. 
The creature, when "thrown up" for stud purposes, exchanges an over- 
heated stable for an open shed. From the exhaustion generated by 
closeness, it has to endure the coldness of all but absolute exposure. 
The coat is no longer dressed ; the mane is left uncombed ; the animal 
gradually turns to a pottled deformity, the resemblance of which may be 
generally witnessed near to every gipsies' encampment. 

All animals which are intended to perpetuate their race should be 
comparatively young, and only subjected to such easy toil as will repay 
the difference between the stable and the field. The quadrupeds should 
be daily groomed, and ought to be supported by fodder of an extra nu- 
tritious character. Gentle labor and a warm, loose box will only keep 
the body in good health. When not required to work, the animal should 
be left at liberty to roam about a piece of bare pasture, especially during 
the night, when the flies are not abroad, and when the vision of the 
horse enables it to move with perfect safety. 

This treatment should be continued almost to the time of foaling; 
when the period is very near, three weeks or a month of perfect rest may 
be accorded, duration being regulated by the condition of the animal. 
Kest, however, does not impl}^ that the expected mother is to be turned 
into a straw yard, or is to be exposed to the inclemency of the season. 
One month subsequent to birth, the work may be gradually resumed ; 
but the mare and her foal should not yet be made to travel on the high- 
roads. The little life may, in the fields, safely gambol by its parent's 
side. The exercise will benefit the youngster, while its eye will become 
accustomed to the toil with which it will have to be associated hereafter. 
But the tender hoof of the newly born is not, at the expiration of the 
fourth week, so formed or so hardened as to endure the grate of the 
com.mon highways, although the feet may sustain the wear consequent 
upon moving over meadow land. 

The foal, before it saw the light, would be sustained by the good food 
consumed by its mother; the mare would not, by gentle work, be so 
lowered as to unfit the quadruped for the offices of maternity. By se- 



436 



BREEDIN^G. 



lecting the jobs to be executed, these need not require greater exertion 
than would be necessitated by healthful exercise. Thus a suggestion, 
which to many minds may appear a heartless exaction, being explained, 
becomes no more than a conservative recreation. Something of the kind 
is needed, because gestation and lactation naturally dispose to sloth, and 
half the danger of parturition springs from the debility which idleness 
engenders. 




THE MANNER IN WHICH A MARE MAV £A11N ITS KEEP, CUBING THE PERIOD OF LACTATION. 



To render this subject more easily understood, let the reader ask the 
family medical attendant who is blest with the strongest child — the 
wealthy lady, who can afford to repose throughout the day upon a sofa, 
or the tradesman's wife, who is necessitated to bustle about, and to assist 
in the lighter portions of the household duties ? Or, if a more direct 
illustration be needed, it is afforded by the contrast presented between 
the swarming cabin of an Irish laborer and the often heirless mansion 
of the English aristocrat. 

"Were such a custom only prevalent as has been indicated, those 
"stud farms," where mares are taken in and confined in the straw yard, 
with newly-born foals by their sides, would be thrown out of use. The 
animal, being daily harnessed, would be constantly inspected. There is 
always plenty of light employment for one horse, if a farm be kept in 
order. These odd jobs are now either neglected altogether, or are suf- 



BREEDING. 43Y 

fered to accumulate until a wagon-load of rubbish encumbers the soil. 
To remove such heaps and obstructions from time to time, the mare and 
a boy might be profitably engaged, doing quite work enough to pay for 
com and to recompense for grooming. The necessary handling would 
prevent that condition of semi-wildness into which too many mares de- 
generate; while the nature of the labor would not render it profitable 
for a proprietor of land to keep more than one quadruped for breeding, 
which is the number that most farmers could find leisure to attend to 
without neglecting other things. 

In the author's opinion, the measures at present pursued in the breed- 
ing of horses are altogether wrong. They are expensive in their opera- 
tions and are deceptive in their results. They seem to be regulated by 
no consideration for the animal, but shaped to the utter convenience of 
man. The use of " stud farms " or breeding establishments has increased 
with the degeneracy of blood stock. The horse is by nature too inti- 
mately associated with its master to be profitably reared in flocks, like to 
sheep or oxen, which, being unsuited for the active purposes of life, and 
of duller dispositions than the equine race, can thrive on mere tran- 
quillity; increasing in the state of semi-domestication. The horse is 
gifted with a spirit which refuses to vegetate, to fatten, and to multiply, 
being content simply with an abundance of provender. Where success- 
ful speculation is dependent upon the value of the produce rather than 
upon the number of foals born, a man may certainly be richer, who shall 
in two years obtain one prime birth ; and he may be much poorer, who 
is annually the owner of various yearlings, none of which shall be suited 
to the higher purposes of the breed. 

The proper place for the horse is the homestead of the proprietor. 
It is the servant, and should be the companion of its owner. There is 
no other living creature which is so entirely blended with man. It is 
unknown in the wild state, — the flocks of horses spoken of as wild being 
merely animals which are turned out on uninhabited plains, but which, 
nevertheless, are strictly private property. The distinguishing mark of 
wildness — or a tendency to return to a particular color — is lost in this 
quadruped. Wild sheep and goats are common. Oxen, as an undo- 
mesticated race, are largely represented. But on the face of the globe 
the horse — though the most intelligent and the fleetest of its genus — is 
not to be discovered unassociated with humanity. 

The creature, thus distinguished, merits that the gentleness of civili- 
zation should characterize its treatment. During the months of gesta- 
tion, the animal should be fondled and caressed. Any kindness which 
may be now lavished upon the submissive slave will be certainly repaid 
hereafter. The hour is approaching when a familiarity with man may 



438 BREEDING. 

soften restraint, and render less perilous the time of danger. The mare, 
being more intelligent than the cow, feels more acutely, and does not 
suffer so apathetically. It is more demonstrative in its behavior; but 
the generous quadruped will, in the utmost wrench of agony, recognize 
the step or the voice of one who has been kind, and will even be sus- 
tained by the presence of him who has earned its confidence. The 
animal is by gentleness wooed, as it were, to submission. It learns to 
associate happiness with the person of its superior ; and willingly sub- 
jects itself to his assistance. Moreover, there is a depth in nature which 
humanity has not fathomed, and the indulgences bestowed upon the 
mother, in some mysterious manner may serve to tame the progeny 
that is not yet numbered among the host of this world's inhabitants. 

Then, following the author's proposed mode of treating a mare, which 
shall be profitable for brood purposes, let the most promising female foal 
be destined from its birth for this function. It should never be placed 
in the hands of a "breaker," or have its back strained by being mounted. 
The creature should be rather coaxed to toil than coerced to labor ; it is 
astonishing how much more can be accomplished by such means than 
will be effected by the harsher methods. Subsequent to the fourth year, 
the quadruped may earn its keep ; but it should never be urged beyond 
that point, and where a difference must exist, the balance should stand 
in the animal's favor. Only the lightest jobs should be chosen — the 
mare being treated more like a favorite slave than regarded as the servile 
drudge, whose exhaustion will tend to the profit of a harsh proprietor. 

In this manner the first six years should be passed, when the mare, 
being matured sufficiently, and uninjured by work, may be put to the 
destined purpose ; similarity — not sameness, but more decidedly not 
difference — regulating the choice of a sire. In the selection, allow one 
to amend the faults of the other ; but in seeking this, avoid absolute con- 
trast, as the union of opposites is too apt to produce deformity. 

When choosing a mare for breeding, endeavor to discard the much 
which has been printed on this subject. Let compactness of form, 
strength, and an aptitude for exertion decide the choice. The legs 
should be stout and short, — declaring bone and tendon to be present. 
The upper portions of these members cannot be too bulging, thick, long, 
or muscular. The crest should be highly arched, and characterized by 
substance ; for the movements of the body are much controlled by the 
muscles of the neck. The shoulder cannot be too fleshy, so it shall 
slant properly, is firm to the touch, and is situated below withers suffi- 
ciently lofty. For hunting or for ordinary purposes, high withers are 
imperative. For racing they are no recommendation, as lofty action 
delays speed and lessens the length of stride. The back should be 



BREEDING. 439 

short, save only in the racer. The loins ought to be broad. The hips 
cannot appear too ragged or be too wide apart, while the quarters must 
seem large in every direction ; nor is it to be considered a fault, should 
these last parts stand higher than and appear disproportioned to the 
other regions. Above all, see that the channel is wide, the mouth large, 
and the nostrils ample. 

Do not, according to the prevailing notion, search after a long or 
roomy trunk. Most people like such a shape, because the carcass 
which they seek after is wanted to contain, with a foal, the enormous 
quantity of grass which the animal is forced to consume before life can 
be sustained. The mare just described is not supposed to live in the 
field, but to be as carefully tended and as liberally nurtured as the best 
horse in the stable. It is, during gestation, desirable that nourishment 
should occupy as little compass as possible ; while it should not corrupt 
the body's natural juices. This last effect is consequent on the con- 
sumption of dry fodder. The moisture of the mother's body is ab- 
stracted from the fcetus, to soften the harsh and hard food which op- 
presses the stomach. But when grass is eaten, an excess of water 
renders that which should support the growth of the future foal weak 
and devoid of nurture, while it engenders dropsy in the dam, and also 
compresses the dawning life in its primary home. 

When the period arrives, the time occupied by the mare in "foaling" 
will be short. The cow is usually slow in these matters. The mare is 
always speedy, and far less patient under pain. Therefore when the 
signs, which are well understood, declare the time to be rapidly ap- 
proaching, send immediately for the nearest veterinary surgeon. How- 
ever, previously ascertain that he is apt in this kind of business ; and, 
above all things, be sure he is a feeling man. A coarse and noisy prac- 
titioner is of no service about horses. The words may not be under- 
stood, but the manners are quickly inteqireted. The quadruped, at this 
period, wants support', encouragement, and kindness. A harsh com- 
mand or a threatening gesture may so alarm timidity, in its hour of ex- 
citement, as shall retard the event they are intended to facilitate. Se- 
verity, however, does not always lead to any immediate result ; but it 
may so flutter the mother or disturb its system as will assuredly be 
fruitful in after disorder. 

Should the animal be properly formed, and have been well selected, 
but little aid will probably be required ; yet it is always prudent to have 
assistance at hand, as the mare on such occasions admits of no delay. , 
Do not, however, allow the animal to give birth in a field or in the open 
air. Such may be the prevailing custom ; but custom is always a bad 
leader for a prudent man to follow. Numerous children are born under 



440 



BREEDING. 



hedges or in gipsy tents ; but, nevertheless, such places are not to be 
preferred for ladies; and the horse, now under consideration, has not 
been reared upon a common, or is it one that knows only comfort during 
the presence of sunshine. Lead the quadruped gently into a thickly 
littered loose box, having trusses of straw carefully poised against the 
inner walls of the building. 




PREPARING THE LTING-IN CHAMBER. 



The proprietor, however, must not be regulated in his measures by 
any rigid attention to dates. These afford nothing like an absolute rule 
worthy of being implicitly obeyed. Neither need he be thrown into a 
fluster, because the mare heaves at the flanks. Such a symptom, when 
unaccompanied by other signs, merely denotes a passing spasm, which 
may generally be removed by the following drink. Should the pain not 
yield, the dose may be repeated in half an hour; for, at this critical 
period, no bodily disturbance can be without importance. These attacks 
are said to be produced by drinking largely of cold water, by unexpected 
excitement, etc. 

Drink for heaving of the Jianks. 

Sulphuric ether One ounce. 

Cold water Three-quarters of a pint. 

Mix. Stir till the ingredients are blended; then give as gently as 
possible. 



BREEDING. 



441 



The hour of labor being near at hand, a pair of light hobbles should 
be attached to the fetlocks of both hind legs. This should be done by 
the person in whom the animal has the greatest confidence, as the near 
approach of a stranger, at such a moment, is very far from desirable. 
From each hobble should proceed a stout, short rope, the ends of which 
should unite with a longer cord. The man whom the quadruped most 
likes should pass the longer rope through the forelegs, and, taking his 
position near the head, he should hold the end, not so tightly as to in- 
convenience the mare, but always so firmly as will be ready for any 
sudden surprise. Mares are apt to be impatient on these occasions; 
under the strong tension of agony, they will sometimes "lash out." 
Should such be the case, the man's strength may not be powerful enough 
to check the action ; but when aided by his voice, it may distract the 
animal's attention, break the force of the blow, and save the veterinary 
surgeon from any very serious injury. 







I REPARATION- FOR IHB tVEM. 



When the foal is bom, let it be received in the arms of the groom, and 
with care laid upon the straw. This done, all present had better retire, 
for the mother and its offspring may with confidence be left to nature. 
There should be no peeping through crevices, for the eye of maternity is 
cunning at detection. Neither should the slightest noise be permitted 
around or near to the building, as the nerves are always morbidly ex- 



442 



BREEDING. 



cited during this particular period. Silence is a good medicine to quiet 
a disturbed system. The creature will do well, if left to itself. The 
cleansing of the foal may be confidently trusted to the parent's affection. 
All she immediately requires is a pail of milk-warm gruel ; three hours 
afterward, she may accept a meal of prepared food. 




THB NEWLT-BORN FOAL. 



Should the after-birth not be immediately ejected, resort to no purg- 
ing ; neither adopt any mechanical contrivance to expedite its expulsion. 
These old methods are altogether wrong. The retention is caused by 
the weakly condition of the mare, which allows the uterus to remain re- 
laxed. The fittest physic, in such a case, is a quart of strong and sound 
ale. Give three doses of this medicine, each administered after a lapse 
of three hours. Should no effect have resulted subsequent to another 
pause of the like duration, inject into the part a full stream of cold water, 
permitting the fluid to return unchecked. Continue to do this till a 
spasm appears ; then leave off, for your object is accomplished : the pain 
announced the viscus has contracted. 

Dry the mare; give another pail of gruel; place a feed of softened 
food in the manger, and leave the creature to luxuriate in that rest 
which will now be enjoyed. 

Animals soon get over such affairs. The foal requires nothing beyond 
a sheltered abode and its mother's attention. Should, however, the 



BREEDING. 



443 



source of the young one's nourishment prove unprolific for more than 
twenty-four hours, a httle skimmed cows' milk, first boiled and then 
slightly sweetened, being afterward diluted with its amount of warm 
water, may, if sufficiently cool, be presented. The human hand is in- 
serted into the fluid, and two fingers only allowed to protrude above the 
surface; these are generally seized upon, the nourishment being easily 
imbibed by the hungry foak More than a single feed is seldom needed ; 
even that had better be withheld until evident weakness necessitates its 
administration. 




PEEDISG THE NEWLT-BOEN FOAL. 



Do not bother the mare or be tempted to thwart the course of nature 
at such a time with the impertinence of ball or drink. All physic should 
be withheld. The common Parent is very indulgent at such seasons ; 
unless opposed by mortal ignorance, his kindness generally proves the 
best restorative. However, should the bowels continue decidedly cos- 
tive, some abdominal irregularity may be suspected, and then a bran 
mash, into which some softened corn should be thrown, will commonly 
afford all requisite relief. With regard to the newly born, it is better 
not to interfere. So the parent be kept in health, the offspring usually 
has all the medicine it requires. Liberal, not too stimulating diet, a 
sheltered abode, a dry ground, and a kind proprietor embrace the chief 
if not all the wants of an animal in this condition. 



444 



BREEDING. 



The mother, after her title is confirmed, should always receive her 
food out of some vessel, which a man should hold during the time it is 
consumed. Much good is thus effected by allaying the fear natural to 
maternity; the person so occupied should carefully abstain from any act 
which might alarm the anxiety of a newly-made parent. The same in- 
dividual should not always present the meal ; but different people should 
assume this office, so the animal may be thus trained to regard men as 
friends, and taught to depend upon the generosity of its superiors. By 
degrees, the foal should be coaxed to accept morsels froiu the hand of 
its attendant; advantage should then be taken to pat and to fondle the 
timid youngster. The purport of such lessons is quickly understood ; 




"^^^^.cXf^ .WxiM^. 



FEKDISa THE DAM. AND COAXINQ THE FOAL TO EAT. 



for the horse appears naturally to value, far higher than is its worth, any 
act of condescension from the appointed master. There seems to exist 
a yearning toward its custodian, and it is surprising to witness with 
what persistency the human race repel this instinct. The sole object of 
man — who should by right of moral appreciation and of intellectual cul- 
ture subdue, tame, and domesticate the creatures of this earth — appar- 



BREEDING. 445 

ently being to make his presence dreaded by the lives which long to 
love and are anxious to serve him. 

It is usual to reintroduce the male a few days, generally three, subse- 
quent to delivery. But such a custom is far too saving to be profitable. 
How does man imagine that one poor body is, besides extracting sus- 
tenance from grass, to yield milk to the living and to sustain the growth 
of the future offspring at the same time ? It has been well declared that 
no organ is equally fitted to perform two oflBces ; but surely either of 
the functions alluded to is a sufficient drag. If the reader has any 
interested motive for concluding otherwise, the countenances of most 
women, during the latter stages of pregnancy, and the shout of the 
pot-boy at the human mother's door, are evidences in favor of the 
author's correctness. Moreover, to demonstrate how these functions 
are opposed, a fact of common occurrence, among the lower order, may 
be mentioned. When failing wages render an increase of family un- 
desirable, it is usual for the married Avomen to suckle the last child even 
for years, thereby delaying the advent of the next intruder. 

To afford the nutriment which shall maintain two growing lives and 
to support itself, is obviously too great a tax to be readily sustained by 
one body. The drain must be the greater, because each will demand 
the more as time progresses ; thus the unborn has a portion of its sus- 
tenance diverted, while the milk, on which the living foal should be 
matured, is impoverished by the necessities of the maternal system. 

Therefore, when entering upon the speculation of breeding horses, it 
should be remembered that though a foal is a foal, nevertheless a good 
and a bad foal are very different beings, when tested by figures in an 
account book. One good foal, every two years, will pay far better than 
four bad foals every year ; as the eight indifferent creatures may be well 
sold at £20, whereas a promising produce may be purchased at a very 
reasonable price if it should be parted with for no more than £50. 

When depicting the habits of most breeders, however, it must be 
recollected that the greater number of mares get no corn. A few receive 
from their liberal owners a little of the damaged produce of last year's 
crop; while thorough-breds generally obtain half the quantity allowed 
to most working animals, and to each the grain is always presented dry. 
The majority of mares are turned out to grass, with the foal running at 
their sides, and the enlarged abdomens showing that "one off, another 
will come on," which seems to be a ruling maxim with English breeders. 
Green herbage has a tendency to induce ascites ; such an effect declares 
the food to be deficient in nourishing properties. The mare, then, while 
suffering from a most exhausting malady, excited by unwholesome diet, 
is expected to suckle and to breed ! The body thus engrossed is, more- 



446 



BREEDING. 



over, anticipated to yield its owner a profit. To upliold such a foolish 
system, there are large establishments scattered over the country ; while 
gentlemen and men of education publicly vent their lamentations, because 
so senseless a plan does not prove a remunerative amusement 1 




BREEIING SLCKLINO, AND UVINO OV CRASS 



With the silly method of breeding should also be discarded another 
general rule, the two regulations evidently forming part of one system. 
Be the foal healthy or weakly, it is permitted to run at its mother's side 
only for an arbitrary period. Should the young one be well developed, 
its good points may, nevertheless, be confirmed by a reasonable enjoy- 
ment of the maternal attentions. Often the too early weaning will prove 
a serious check to the growth. Could man only control his impatience, 
the settlement of such matters might be left to nature. The pair should 
not be divided, so long as their company is mutually agreeable. The 
animals, however, as age advances, should be carefully watched, and the 
two separated so soon as the mother shows she has received nature's 
command to stop the supplies. 

It is a common occurrence for the breeder to delay "operating" upon 
the male colt, because the body needs further development. A Aveek or 
two of early comfort will do more for the future points than will months 
of delay, after the deficiency is all but confirmed, or when time has given 
a certain direction to the growth. The author has never beheld any 



BREEDING. 



44T 



benefit result from these periods of exemption, which are, however, 
usually granted as a kind of forlorn hope. There is another prevalent 
custom, which is equally objectionable. All men, in this country, first 
use the animal which is subsequently to propagate its race. The higher 
breed is broken, trained, and run, before it is "thrown" into the stud. 
In lower life, the farmer, after having hacked and hunted a creature till 
existence is worthless and spirit gone, says, over his jug and bis pipe, 
" That ould mare has proved a downright good bit of stuff. I should 
like to have a foal out of her before she is knocked on the head." So 
he procures the service of some led horse, and turns the aged animal on 
to the common, to endure the inclemency of our climate without protec- 
tion, — "to rest herself," he asserts; but the author declares such food 
and shelter to be almost starvation. This conduct would seem to be 
the climax of possible folly! Nevertheless, the farmer acknowledges 
nothing wrong in his behavior; for he is as bold and as loud in his 
lamentations as other people, when a weakly foal results from his want 
of consideration — the blame always being cast upon the sire. 




THE OULD MARE. 



The foregoing chapter has not been so much an exj^osition of existing 
customs, as a consideration how far the prevailing habits reasonably 
admit of amendment. The views which have been announced may, to 
many minds, appear as purely theoretical, and, as such, to be deserving 



448 BREEDING. 

of no consideration. But before the reader jumps to such a conclusion, 
he is entreated to reflect that the period of gestation in the mare occu- 
pies neai'ly the space of an entire year. Having weighed this fact, let 
him learn the gestative season required by other animals, and determine 
whether there is any living creature whose capabilities are taxed with 
an equal severity to those of the equine tribe. At the same time, he 
should appreciate the circumstance that the offspring of the horse is 
esteemed only as its body is developed, or is capable of labor ; whereas 
the young of many other creatures are kept for amusement, or valued 
only as articles of food. Surely, where perfection is the object, a greater 
patience might be reasonably displayed in the mode of securing its 
attainment ] 



CHAPTER XIY. 

BREAKING AND TRAINING — THEIR ERRORS AND THEIR RESULTS. 

However much the English nation may have advanced in civilization, 
as regards the horse, its habits, its subjugation, and its training, two 
centuries would appear to have introduced no important change or 
material improvement. Some minor alterations, undoubtedly, have been 
adopted ; but the benefits conferred upon the animal by such innovations 
are more than questionable; and these variations seem to have been 
regulated far more by obedience to the progress of society, than to have 
been recommended by the slightest sympathy for the quadruped. 

A reference to the copper-plate engravings which ornament the old 
work, in two volumes folio, by William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, 
entitled "^ General System of Horsemanship,^^ will demonstrate the 
present formal mode of sitting in the saddle, which is now regarded as 
imperative by the military profession, to be no more than the ancient 
fashion of riding which was common with our ancestry. In language, 
manners, costume, or in any of the many things which mark a people's 
advance, fixedness has not been allowed to check invention ; but, Avhere 
improvement was most needed, not only to ameliorate the condition of 
the slave, but to confirm the progression of man, by rendering impos- 
sible those sights which degrade and which debase the reasoning faculty, 
it has apparently been absent. The creature, during these years, has 
altered in form, and has become milder in character. The spurs and 
bits of former times are no longer in general use, because these are no 
longer required. They assuredly were not cast aside from any con- 
sideration for the life to coerce which they were employed, although a 
simple regard for property may have banished such ready instruments 
of torture and of injury. In justification of the foregoing remarks, the 
portrait of the Marquis (only of a much reduced size) is inserted on the 
next page. 

The lunging of the existing horse-breaker is obviously nothing beyond 
that circular practice which constituted the chief portion of equine edu- 
cation with our forefathers. It is in the book just named depicted over 
and over again, until the image, from repetition, grows tedious. It 

29 (449) 



450 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



seems vary difficult to understand the useful or rational purpose which 
this peculiar lesson is now intended to support. Some persons assert 
it is of much service in taming, as it assuredly must tire, the colt. Others 
declare it teaches the animal to bear properly on particular limbs. A 
third party assures us it is of infinite service, because it instructs the 
young horse in leaning toward the rein, and, by not permitting the eyes 
to be wholly engaged in directing the feet, it obliges the quadruped to 
employ " high action. " 




COPIED FROM THB "SYSTEM OF HORSEMANSmp" BY IHE DUKE OF NEWCASTLE. 



The use of the limbs is governed by the natural formation of the body ; 
this last no breaker will undertake to improve. It certainly is assum- 
ing too much for any art to pretend it can alter that which nature has 
decreed. A well-formed creature, although it should never have ex- 
perienced the breaker's instruction, will, of necessity, exhibit grace in 
its movements. The action of a badly-made quadruped may be tem- 
porarily disguised, but it will permanently retain only the mode of pro- 
gression it is fitted to exemplify. By forcing a faulty horse to trot in a 
shallow stream, or by obliging the animal to move briskly with sand 
bags attached round the fore fetlocks, a badly-made colt often will, for a 
space, adopt a higher action; but it is always certain that this step, 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



451 



which has been acquired at personal inconvenience, will not be long 
maintained, when the inducement no longer operates. 

But, to take a practical view of the good likely to result from lunging. 
Horses sometimes are obliged to move in circles : mill horses pass their 
lives in such educational employment. The only eflFect produced by this 
long course of instruction is that the poor victims become sightless. 
Traveling round and round soon causes giddiness, or induces a determ- 
ination of blood to the brain. Young animals often stagger when re- 
lieved from their monotonous course of lunging duties. Old quadrupeds, 
we are told, grow used to the motion ; but such familiarity is purchased 
with the deprivation of one "precious sense." This termination is 
hastened with the rapidity of the movements. Mill horses walk their 
monotonous rounds ; but the breaker, dreading no results, makes the colt 
trot when describing this, his favorite figure. 




Blood, therefore, rapidly loads and oppresses the brain of the young 
animal thus abused ; and this consequence is the quicker as the pace is 
more excited, because the circulation is not only faster, but it is also 
more under subjection to external influences in the young than in the 
matured. The optic nerves originate from the sensorium, being a direct 
continuation of the substance of the brain itself; whenever the nervous 
center is congested, sight is the first sense that suffers, or the first that 



452 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



tells the condition of the organ. Frequent repetition of this result upon 
the delicate structures of growing life appears to be an antiquated cus- 
tom, which modern civilization should immediately abolish. It is not 
prudent in man to hazard the injury of his most valuable possession, 
when he simply intends to render the animal better suited for his service. 
Gentlemen no longer delight to disport on "the grand horse;" neither 
is it esteemed any part of a liberal education to exhibit an ability to sit 
in the "high saddle." It is, then, impossible to understand the motive 
which reconciles the present generation to an injurious form, the inten- 
tion of which was exploded many years ago. No direct result appears 
to favor of habit. The people who profess to "break in" colts may 
vaunt their capabilities; but the author cannot remember the quad- 
rupeds which, by force or cunning, however unscrupulously employed, 
had been in any degree improved. On the contrary, he has seen several, 
and has heard of more animals, which are reputed to have been injured 
by having been improperly "broken." 




aRCULAR PRACTICE. AS ILLUSTRATED BY A FORMER DUKE OF NEWCASTLE. 



The horse is the most patient servant intrusted to mortality. Man 
can only spoil, when he essays to amend the perfection of Heaven's gift. 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 453 

It is good enough in its natural state. It was sent upon earth with a 
disposition which adapted it for that position it was destined to occupy. 
It was created with a spirit that yearned to love, that was happy to 
serve, and that was proud to obey. Must it not be the fatuity of weak- 
ness which tempts mankind to waste the strength, to distort the limbs, 
and to hazard the sight of their most precious possession, by a senseless 
adherence to an antiquated form ? 

Every gentleman was intended to be his own horse-breaker, in the 
same manner as it is now acknowledged that all men should exercise 
authority over those families at the heads of which they are placed. 
The qualifications for such an oflSce many gentlemen may be inclined to 
dispute; at their investment with such a novel duty many individuals 
may express unqualified surprise. This, however, is only the announce- 
ment of man's want of appreciation for the blessings which surround 
him. Could humanity exalt its vision, it would perceive in its increased 
duties the boundless mercies which have fitted it to rule on earth ! 

The horse is, essentially, the servant of man. The greatest indul- 
gence cannot elevate the quadruped out of its real position. The foal is 
born to its fetters, happy in the bravery of perfect inexperience. Doubt- 
ing nothing, but too timid to display much trustfulness. Gracefully 
pliant in its nature, therefore prepared for subjugation; but soon won to 
love, thereby fitted for domestication. In fact, the horse is the slave of 
its reverence and its affection. The breaker injures the quadruped by 
operating only upon its fears, and by not appealing to its higher or its 
better qualities. The horse, when not guided by its attachments, is a 
ferocious savage. It is not prudent in man to treat such a gifted creat- 
ure as though it were a piece of crude metal, which will bend only to the 
employment of force ; but it would be wiser, did he receive and shelter 
the youthful spirit prepared by its Maker to appreciate the rule dic- 
tated by a milder impulse than one of brutal severity. 

The equine race are rendered capricious or obstinate by injudicious 
petting; but they are made dangerous and ferocious by the opposite 
kind of treatment. The animals which are most valuable, or those 
with feelings most readily kindled, are the quadrupeds which the breaker 
quickly and irremediably spoils. Thus was poor Cruiser rendered dis- 
trustful, and taught to regard all mankind as enemies. The breaking 
and training inflicted upon the thorough-bred made an impression which 
no time could obliterate. The animal became dangerous, and continued 
so till it encountered Mr. Rarey. His gentleness, blended with an ability 
to instruct, conquered and subdued the rebellious spirit. In its surprise, 
the creature rose from its bonds to worship and to love forever the being 
who had overpowered, but had not pained the "man hater." To him it 



454 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

became gentle and familiar as a dog ; but toward other representatives 
of humfinity it still was urged by that dread which had been established 
in its colthood. 

The quadruped, being thus susceptible to impressions, of course re- 
quires a treatment dictated by wisdom and originating in humanity. No 
maudlin familiarity must ever be indulged, w^hich may cause the slave to 
forget it is in the presence of its master. Love delights in humility; 
but the feelings are traitorous which tempt mortality to assume such a 
character before its equine dependent. The aptitude for being spoilt 
pervades all animal life. It is only more strongly marked in the horse 
than in other creatures. The dog, when too much indulged, loses its 
affection in its sense of power: it will often snap at the hand which 
feeds it. The horse requires, at all times, a conviction of authority to 
restrain its strength. If permitted to indulge its own will, — to stop 
when the voice says "go on," — it changes from the most subservient of 
slaves into the most capricious of masters. Therefore man, in his inter- 
course with the equine race, should, from prudential motives, never be 
cruel ; but, to anticipate the necessity for punishment, he should remem- 
ber that nature had created the horse to serve and given it a disposition 
to obey. 

Kindness, however, is essential. When training a racer, excess of 
fluid is assuredly inimical to condition. But it is not therefore desirable 
to place the animal where a morbid longing is certain to be generated. 
That, however, is now always done. The stable is heated with impurity: 
fever is the consequence. Food is given dry : the raging thirst of dis- 
ease is thereby aggravated. Still, the trainer laments many of his horses 
will not eat, while more fail during his efforts to promote their condition. 
Could he be persuaded to amend his ways, possibly he would have less 
occasion to sorrow over imaginary misfortunes ! 

Place the horse in a warm, but airy, loose box. Give the water min- 
gled with the food, or soak the fodder before presenting it. The creature 
naturally consumes little liquid during health. But if the body be dis- 
eased, morbid appetites are excited. Now, condition is the perfection 
of possible health, and the author only complains because modern train- 
ing is not calculated to attain the end at which it obviously strives. 
Therefore, much is ruined and little perfected under the prevailing sys- 
tem. The measures are wrong, simply because they are cruel. They 
are calculated to provoke resistance rather than win obedience from a 
simple being. Severity never shows itself so abhorrent as when ex- 
ercised over the meek and the submissive. 

At the same time that man's power may be perfect, it should be as a 
law of existence : it should be exercised from the hour of birth, not sud- 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



455 



denly imposed upon an unbroken spirit which had previously been per 
mitted to enjoy the wildest freedom. It should govern from the earliest 
consciousness, not, as now, be plumped upon a young life which ha? 
hitherto been permitted to roam, knowing no restraint. The foal should 
not run entirely free by its mother's side : the colt should not be turned 
into some handy paddock to feed and grow, till it is old enough "to be 
wanted:" the life should not exist without a need or a care, until a cer- 
tain age is attained, when the young creature is to be suddenly parted 
from its enjoyments, and the happy spirit is to be literally "broken" 
unto the most servile obedience. 

Let the education commence with the birth. Let a man always pre- 
sent the vessel from which the mother feeds. The mare will obey the 
instinct of appetite ; the behavior of its dam will instruct the impulses 
of her young. At the expiration of a week or two, the semblance of a 




CAST Br THE HEAD-STALL. 



head-stall may be put on the foal ; but this should never be worn when 
the groom is absent, as animals may cast themselves, by getting the 
hind hoof entangled when endeavoring to scratch the ear. That part of 
the body the friction of the straps generally causes to itch ; the conse- 
quence being almost certain, the result is likewise fatal. Several valua- 
ble horses have been sacrificed, through grooms turning the creatures 
into the field without removing the halters. These last were left on, be- 
cause the quadrupeds, when thus caparisoned, were more easily caught 
by an idle domestic. This subject has, in a previous part of the work, 
been illustrated ; but to prevent the inconvenience of a reference to a 
former page, the engraving was reproduced. 



456 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



4.fter a space, a cord may be attached, and the young may be held 
while its parent feeds. Then something like a surcingle may be fixed 
round the body; such things should be made of strips of cloth or of 
calico, the intention merely being to indicate those articles which must 
be assumed hereafter. Subsequently a juicy piece of any root the creat- 
ure may delight in — of marsh-mallow, of aniseseed, or of liquorice — 
should be inserted between the lips as a mimic bit, from which should 
depend two short reins. If these things are properly made and carefully 
introduced, every addition will be accepted with pleasure as a new orna- 
ment. No sense of restraint will interfere with an innocent amusement; 
but the little animal, conscious of no pain, will soon exhibit gratification 
when arrayed in the representatives of future fetters. 




THE FIPST HARNESS VVT ON A FOAL 



At the same time the hand should be frequently passed over the body, 
and occasionally carried down the limbs, although nothing approaching 
a regular grooming can, as yet, be necessary. The fluff of the mane, the 
tail, the forelock, and the fetlock should, subsequently, be combed out 
very gently, the attendant taking care to praise the foal during the pro- 
cess, and feigning to feel ecstatic admiration after the performance of 
each operation. All animal life — even does the truth extend to the 
birds — is peculiarly susceptible to human flattery ; for the German peas- 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



457 



ant teaches the bullfinch to pipe, by dancing before its cage, playing to 
the captive, and only pausing after each tune to indulge in the pretense 
of a most extravagant delight. 

The youngster should then be led about a meadow by its tiny reins : 
when perfect in this lesson, it may be fastened to its mother's head while 
the mare goes to or from its labor. But it must not be forgotten that a 
harsh word, hastily spoken, may efface more knowledge than a month 
of tender tuition can communicate. Gentleness and equanimity are of 
all value, when the confidence of young existence has to be won ; for 
such a capacity, patience becomes something more than an ordinary 
virtue. Some shyness or show of resistance must be expected when the 
little foal finds itself first fastened to its mother's side, near the shafts of 
a light cart ; but this will speedily disappear. The tiny feet should, at 
length, be raised, and afterward the horn be gently tapped or rapped 
against. These things should be repeated, till they are submitted to 
without any evidence of fear having been excited by the liberties. Such 
preparatory lessons ought to be given before the strength is sufficiently 
matured to be dangerous. 




HANDLING THE FEET. 



When the weaning has, by the process of nature, been accomplished, 
the colt should not be turned out and neglected until a determined time 
for "breaking in" comes round. It should still be sheltered and nour- 



458 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



ished at the home, the previous lessons being enforced with greater em- 
phasis as tlie age progresses, and the animal being taken occasionally to 
the forge, there to stand among other horses, but not to be shod. From 
its earliest day, man should appear as the necessary companion to every 
movement. It will soon learn to follow like a dog ; thus it may enjoy a 
partial degree of freedom. But no weakness should betray its custodian 
into any resemblance even of over-indulgence, although the little creature 
will regard its tutor with affection, so he does not by his severity repel 
its advances. 

When, however, the animal is no longer permitted to run by its 
parent's side, the education ought to assume the character of earnest. 







EECEiyiNO THE FIRST LESSON. 



A small snaffle should be attached to a regular bridle ; when the 
youngster is led out to exercise, this harness should be put on. The 
surcingle should be exchanged for something resembling a saddle ; ulti- 
mately, a dumb jockey ought to be mounted on the back. Upon the 
extended points of the last machine, an old hat and a cloth may be 
affixed. These objects will at first excite terror ; but fear not being jus- 
tified and the colt not being hurt by the dreaded presence, confidence 
will return. A sack, stuffed with straw, and moulded somewhat into 
the shape of a man, should then be placed over the dumb jockey. Little 
stirrups and a pair of representative legs should hang on either side, 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 459 

while, to complete the whole, reins may be fastened to the bit; a por- 
tion of these last being formed of India-rubber, for not a few mouths are 
permanently destroyed by the unyielding tug of the heavy-fisted breaker. 

All these liberties being permitted, if the instruction has been prop- 
erly communicated, the pupil will have been rather pleasurably excited 
than permanently alarmed by the varied progress of its tuition. Such 
lessons, however, should be daily given, until the colt has attained its 
second year. It should then be regularly groomed; but nothing 
weightier than a dumb jockey being placed upon its back before the 
third year has been completed. 

This age being attainded, a very diminutive lad may be put into the 
colt's saddle ; but as boys are too apt to spoil the mouth by hanging 
back and holding on by the reins, the India-rubber had better be con- 
tinued, and the jockey instructed not to interfere with the bridle, save 
when his so doing is necessary to guide the animal. Then the teaching 
of different paces may begin, the quadruped being always instructed In 
company with a perfectly trained old horse. All feeble intellects are apt 
at imitation, and a colt shall readily learn from example what coercion 
will fail to impart. 

By the fourth year, the animal may be placed between the shafts of a 
very light gig, should its form indicate the creature not to be adapted for 
the saddle ; at first it must be walked about a meadow. When the 
sound of the wheels is not listened for with evidence of fear, the pace 
may be quickened. Subsequently a boy may get into the vehicle, while 
the man remains at the colt's head. Succeeding this, the course should 
be directed by the driver ; ultimately, after a man has for some weeks 
assumed the office of director, the vehicle may be taken upon the road. 

Most harness horses are very imperfectly broken. The education is 
too hurried, and seems to be considered as perfected whenever the ani- 
mal will merely take to the collar. The consequence is, there are more 
bad harness horses to be met with in London than creatures of any 
other description. Some have all spirit lashed or jaded out of them ; 
these have become "slugs," or the poor wretches are almost dead to 
command and insensible to the goad. Others are rendered incurable 
kickers by the treatment to which they have been subjected. A third 
class are ruined by the unscrupulous use of the reins; and some of these 
will take long journeys, all the time holding the bit between the teeth. 
A fourth set are rendered cripples by the unfeeling employment of the 
bearing-rein, which disables the organs of respiration, and renders the 
lightest draught a terrible burden, by throwing the work upon the mus- 
cles of the limbs, while it compels these agents to contract at a fearful 
disadvantage. 



460 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

Those who delight in a lofty crest may accomplish more by attention 
to the health and diet than by the absence of humanity. The strongest 
bearing-rein and the sharpest bit cannot exalt the head of a spiritless 
horse. Clover, tares, beans and peas, by promoting the strength and 
lending tone to the muscular system, will do more to raise the neck and 
promote gayety of spirit than the harness-maker can accomplish. Bear- 
ing-reins are disgraceful cruelties, and do no more than expose the moral 
condition or the pecuniary meanness of those parties who employ them, 

In corroboration of the importance of the neck as an aid to motion, 
the reader must pardon the author if he refers to a well-marked circum- 
stance which has hitherto escaped observation. A horse with a thin or 
narrow neck, measuring from the crest to the wind-pipe, should always 
be avoided. It denotes bodily weakness, and testifies to an absence of 
spirit. The cervical region always first exhibits the token of approach- 
ing emaciation. If the reader will hereafter test the remark by observa- 
tion, he will find all poor, exhausted animals, which carry the head as 
though its weight Avas oppressive, invariably have the neck much im- 
poverished and altogether attenuated. 

In short, a mere catalogue of the evils engendered by the injudicious 
breaking of draught horses, would occupy more space than the author 
has at his command. For this reason, the driver of a young animal 
should never be intrusted with reins made entirely of leather ; a part of 
the length should be composed of India-rubber. Neither should he be 
permitted to flourish a whip. All severity is but an indulgence of the 
controller's temper; it is unnecessary with a life which is eager to learn 
and is anxious to obey. The sound of the voice or the gentlest indica- 
tion should be sufficient to excite the ability of such a pupil. No one 
can doubt this, who has beheld its activity of ear whenever the horse is 
addressed. 

After the foregoing fashion the education may be perfected, without 
allowing any professing brute, under the name of a "horse-breaker," to 
spoil the temper and to lay the seeds of future disease, by ill treatment 
of a few weeks' duration. Some years ago the author remembers meet- 
ing a man, who must have weighed more than fourteen stone, seated on 
a side saddle, and having a horse rug dangling about his heels. He was 
supposed to be "breaking in" a colt, rising three, for a lady equestrian. 
His employer must have been excessively developed, or her representa- 
tive could only spoil the creature which was, ostensibly, preparing to 
receive a lighter burden and a more delicate hand. An accident was 
thus almost rendered certain, whenever the oppressed quadruped should 
be relinquished to its future mistress. 

The matters which have been already pointed out being attended to, 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



461 



and the force having been increased with the growing strength of the colt, 
the creature, after its fifth year, (if intended for the higher purposes 
of the saddle,) should be taught to leap. To place a rider on an animal's 
back and then to expect a bar to be cleared, is very like loading a youn{> 
lady with a sack of flour as preparatory to a dancing lesson being re- 
ceived. This folly is, however, universally practiced ; so is that of 
teaching the paces, when the quadruped's attention is probably engrossed 
by the burden which the spine has to sustain. 




EISI.NG TO TltE LEAP. 



Leaping is best taught by turning the horse into a small paddock 
having a low hedge or hurdle fence across its center. A rider should, 
in sight of the animal, take an old horse over this several times. The 
groom, who brings the corn at the meal hour, then goes to that side 
where the animal is not, and calls, shaking up the provender all the time 
his voice sounds. The boundary will soon be cleared. When half the 
quantity is eaten, the man should proceed to the opposite compartment 
and call again. If this is done every time the young horse is fed, the 
fence may be gradually heightened ; after six months of such tuition, a 
light rider may be safely placed upon the back. 

Instruction, thus imparted, neither strains the structures nor tries the 
temper. The habit is acquired without those risks which necessarily 
attend a novel performance, while a burden oppresses the strength, and 



462 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



whip or spur distracts the attention. The body is not disabled by the 
imposition of a heavy load before its powers are taxed to the uttermost. 
The quadruped has all its capabilities unfettered, and, in such a state, 
leaping speedily becomes as easy of performance as any other motion. 




CLEAniNO THE FENCE. 



Irish horses, all being excellent jumpers, are much esteemed in Eng- 
land. In Ireland, however, the fields are of small dimensions, and gates 
leading to them are uncommon. It is not unusual for a quadruped to be 
obliged to clear numerous walls before a certain pasture can be gained. 
Thus, to leap is rendered a prominent necessity of equine existence, for 
the steed must either jump or starve. By such a condition of their resi- 
dence is the Irish breed made conspicuous for that activity which espe- 
cially excites the admiration of Englishmen. Hunting, moreover, is a 
favorite pastime with the natives of the sister isle ; therefore, while most 
Irish horses become admirable English hunters, the best of the English 
breed would be sadly thrown out by a short run in the adjacent king- 
dom. There can be, however, no reason why an English colt, if prop- 
erly trained, should not become as fine a performer as the most expert 
or celebrated of those animals which are generally supposed to be born 
"fencers." 

The seventh year should witness the horse taken into the active service 
of its master. Too early work, certainly, cripples the majority of ani- 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 463 

mals; but there is not a circumstance of the many, rebuked in these 
pages, which does not aid powerfully in producing that miserable effect. 
All the customs about the equine I'ace seem to be antiquated and injuri- 
ous. An animal is taken up, is cast, is operated upon, is shod, is broken, 
and is sold often in the course of a few weeks. What a change has to 
be submitted to ! Every incident of life is altered — the creature is sud- 
denly called upon to endure a new existence. Is it a matter for surprise 
that nature occasionally rebels against so wholesale an innovation ? Is 
it not a proof of the sweetness of the disposition which graces the equine 
race, that the majority can yield themselves up to the barbarity of such 
a terrible mutation ? 

The author does not imagine that any person will immediately delay 
the breaking of his horse up to the period which has been suggested. 
To take a colt only every second year, and always allow seven years to 
pass before the animal is brought to market, would, assuredly, double 
the present cost ; or, in other words, it would displace those animal weeds 
which now cheapen the price of horse flesh. No proposal generally suc- 
ceeds in the modern age, in which expense is decidedly ignored. The 
reader is, therefore, not expected to alter his plans because the present 
volume has been published. Something, however, will have been gained 
if the book causes him to question his existing behavior, even though he 
should not modify his proceedings. A writer, however, is bound to state 
that which in his conviction is the truth, and to pay no regard to motives 
of mere expediency. Then, putting probability and expense, convenience 
and existing arrangements out of the question, let the reader deliberately 
say, whether very much of what he has read was not right in theory. 

Then, as regards money expense, this might not be increased ; for if 
the animal would cost twice as much, it would endure under a better 
system four times as long. The outlay, consequently, reckoned against 
the years of service, would be smaller; nevertheless, many a decade 
must elapse before that which the book declares is practically carried 
out. Still, if a few only are convinced, and none adopt the plans pro- 
posed, good will ultimately result ; for the right must be known before 
it can be practiced, and man generally, in the end, does that which his 
better sense has acknowledged to be just. The impulse which urges 
him to such a course may be resisted ; but it will, as a necessity of his 
existence, at length operate; for by such an irresistible power are 
thrones upturned, are institutions amended, and all human progress is 
ultimately controlled. 

The animal being educated according to the foregoing description, — 
not being forced to strain its thews and to distort its limbs before the 
frame has fairly been perfected, but being gradually brought to the 



464 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



mark of its requirements, and also permitted time to comprehend, before 
it is laslied to perform — being allowed the benefits of practice prior to 
being expected to exhibit its accomplishments — being simply treated 
after a manner that every grade of reason must recognize as just, — would 
come forth in the full possession of all its natural powers, and would 
distance the swarm of equine babies which now disgrace the thorough- 
fares, encumber the field, and ruin the race-course. It would be fitted 
to carry a man in any manly sport ; and it would be able, not being 
distraught by bodily pains, to sympathize in the pleasures of its rider, 
and to share the amusement in which he delighted. 

One peculiarity, illustrative of the present mode of preparing quad- 
rupeds for exertion, is to be witnessed in most hunting fields. The 
young gentleman who pays hundreds, perhaps, for his "mount," and 
whose horse has been long under the trainer's care, is usually "no- 
where " at the death, although he is at liberty to choose his way and to 
regulate his pace according to his pleasure; whereas the huntsman, 
seated on a screw which has been hacked throughout the summer, is 
generally foremost in the chase. 




-^^s^^mm'^^ 



THE OLD HUNTER AND THE TOONG STEED. 



This seeming inconsistency evidently favors those notions which the 
author has presumed to promulgate. The wealthy scion of aristocracy 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 465 

usually sits upon the young beauty, while the huntsman generally be- 
strides the aged animal. The older steed may be of little worth, and its 
blemishes may be numerous; but it has not been exhausted under a 
pretense of fitting it to endure; it has been hacked or ridden through 
the months when the younger quadruped was imprisoned in absolute 
idleness. The cheaper horse has been in constant requisition to exercise 
the dogs, etc., and therefore its health has been better preserved than is 
that of the gentleman's steed, which is either new to the sport, or has 
recently been taken from the supposed enjoyment of a summerh rest. 

Training of hunters and of racers, as at present conducted, is neither a 
strengthening nor a refreshing process. The animal that has recently 
been relinquished by the trainer, instead of being able to endure extra 
exertion, is generally debilitated by those measures which were designed 
to produce a contrary effect. In the first place, three doses of physic, 
which are given under a belief of their tonic efficacy, are quite sufficient 
to disable any creature, that, like the horse, is possessed of a very large 
and a very long digestive track, or which nature, as a protection, had 
rendered almost safe from the purgative operation of medicinal agents. 
Before the bowels of the horse can be loosened, the primary effects of 
poisoning must be established. Aloes is the favorite purgative of the 
stable ; but so nearly related are the quantity which relaxes and the 
amount which kills, that probably aloes has poisoned more horses than 
all other drugs in the pharmacopceia. 

The reader, to whom such a subject is a novelty, may inquire what 
the intestines have to do with the muscular action. Supposing such a 
question possible, the author replies, that although the animal body is 
made up of numerous parts, and composed of various organs, neverthe- 
less the whole is so united that no part or structure can be diseased, but 
the whole is affected. The intestinal track is lined with mucous mem- 
brane. When this surface is involved, prostration or debility ensues. 
Cold and^ore throat are ready instances of this result; for both are con- 
sequent upon small portions of inflamed mucous membrane. Imagine, 
then, the utter prostration which must ensue upon the morbid excite- 
ment of so large a mucous surface as that which covers the digestive 
canal of a horse. Yet the trainer thrice induces this consequence, under 
an ignorant conviction that by so doing he confers upon the sufferer 
extraordinary nervous energy ! 

Purging is, however, only slightly more weakening than sweating. 
Perspiration acts differently on different specimens of the same species. 
One person is nearly always bathed in moisture ; another invariably 
presents a dry skin. This shall hardly be moved without the surface of 
his body being loaded with copious drops of fluid exudation ; that will 

30 



466 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

endure the utmost exertion, grow heated at any employment, but will 
not sensibly lose a particle by transmission. The trainer, nevertheless, 
treats all animals alike. He gallops every quadruped submitted to his 
care, as though the consequence was invariably beneficial. In vain does 
one horse break down, another refuse its corn, and a third exhibit swollen 
legs or crippled feet, while a fourth shall be only rendered more lively 
by the process which disabled its fellows. To sweat is a part of the 
trainer's system, and all the creatures which he is to train must therefore 
be violently sweated. 

"With racers, to these modes of debilitating is united a third, — exces- 
sive labor. The horse is tried at its topmost speed. These trials are 
frequent ; although it is a common saying that a horse may be trained 
until it cannot move, still the practice is continued. The pace is quite 
as severe as it is in a public race ; the weight is usually pretty much the 
same. It is well known that these trials are often run in less time than 
the contest for which they are thought to be only a preparation. Not 
withstanding the repeated disappointment and the frequent injury in- 
duced, such prejudicial experiments are continued, though not in every 
sphere of training. Men train as prize fighters, but they do not, before 
entering the ring, engage in numerous pitched battles. There is, as- 
suredly, something wrong when the same law is stringent in one case 
but is inoperative in another, although both instances are supposed to 
be governed by the similar regulations. 

The trainer of late years has somewhat changed his customs. For- 
merly, animals, while in training, were taken out of the stable twice each 
day. Now they are allowed only to smell the air once in twenty-four 
hours ; but the period of labor is lengthened. The pace and the extent 
of time over which it ranges are important considerations when young 
life has to be dealt with. No less deserving some reflection is the bur- 
den to be carried during such exertion. Last of all, and probably as 
important as any, is the particular hour during which the natural habits 
of the colt fit it to sustain extraordinary fatigue. 

The trainer's horses, ranged in Indian file, are now abroad from eleven : 
sometimes they return by twelve ; at other occasions it is half-past twelve 
before the bridles are slackened ; but generally one o'clock has struck be- 
fore the saddles are removed. From eleven to one is the precise period 
when the sun attains its greatest altitude. At this time, those insect pests 
which torment the equine race are busy and abroad. It is true, the eye 
of the animal fits it to encounter the glare of the desert, but instinct dis- 
poses the quadruped to roam only when the atmosphere is cool, when 
all its annoyances have retired, and when moisture hangs upon the earth. 
The eye can better sustain the effects of light in its excess than the feet — 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 46T 

than the horn of the hoof can endure the results of dryness or the 
hardness of a baked English claj. 

Yet the training horse is housed in stables the temperature of which 
is oppressive, the foulness of which must be most injurious to the pris- 
oner. It is there shut in stench and in darkness to recruit its strength, 
and to gain fresh energy to endure further reduction. Exercised, when 
nature would dispose the animal to rest ; forced to submit to a fainting 
warmth, when instinct would induce the creature to seek the coolest 
shade; ridden, till it almost fails; physicked, till it reels; and sweated, 
till the process makes it fear the opening of its stable door, — how is the 
trained quadruped nurtured ? How is it supported, to fortify the body 
for bearing up against such numerous trials ? 

It is compelled to consume hard corn and fibrous hay. Water is 
stinted. The measures just described must generate a raging thirst; 
but the trainer, according to his system, refuses drink. The contents of 
the manger must aggravate the dryness of the throat ; but the trainer 
begrudgingly permits the animal to imbibe the contents of the pail. 
The mode of feeding is productive of other evils. Purging and sweating 
are excused, as necessary to remove accumulations of fat. Corn and 
hay are those very substances which induce the accumulation of fat! 
Then, according fo the present trainer's pretended system, one thing 
does that which . another undoes. Whether nature is invigorated by 
such a process, the reader must decide. But, in the author's opinion, 
the existing method is a prejudice, which reason condemns, and which 
man is not justified in compelling any creature to undergo. 

All the foregoing customs are, in the author's judgment, decidedly 
wrong. The stable should be cool — not cold — sheltered and airy. The 
loose box should be large enough for the limbs to be stretched and for 
the position to be varied, according to the inclination of the inmate. 
The kind of equine residence which the writer approves of has already 
been described ; for information upon this subject, the reader is referred 
to the chapter treating of "Stables as they should be." 

The food should not be such as requires stone or steel to comminute 
it. Horses' jaws are not machines urged by steam, by wind, or by water ; 
but they are only bones acted upon by the contraction of muscular fiber. 
The exhaustion of a part must, as has been already explained, affect the 
whole ; the exertion of extraordinary power in the head will, therefore, 
not refresh the limbs. Feed the animal, while being trained, upon soft- 
ened, not upon watery substances. Do not oblige the body to supply its 
own moisture, for that is to deprive the system of part of the nourishment 
which should be devoted to uphold the strength. 

As concerns the articles of food, these should not consist of oats and 



468 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

hay, although a portion of either maj form a part of the sustenance. 
There are certain substances the nutritive qualities of which are ex- 
pended in the formation of muscular fiber; other materials are devoted 
entirely upon the adipose tissues. Among the last prominently stand 
the favorite provender of the English stable. A little of such nourish- 
ment is needed to supply the exhaustion of activity : so much should be 
presented. Of the other description — as beans, peas, vetches — there is 
a numerous tribe of legumens or plants, which present their seeds in 
pods. Hay should be made of these substances, by the seeds being sown 
broadcast and mown when only in flower. It is unfortunate that there 
exists a belief such articles are of too stimulating a nature to form the 
larger part of the stable diet. That, however, is a point which can only 
be decided by experiment ; and the best proof that no trial of the kind 
has been made, is aflTorded by the needful preparation required for its 
institution being unknown. However, the general custom of maintain- 
ing agricultural teams upon green vetches certainly does not countenance 
the notion that peril necessarily attends the adoption of such a form of 
diet. 

The hours of exercise should be amended. The morning's work should 
be performed at the earliest dawn, when it is getting light. The even- 
ing's labor should take place at dusk — after sunset. The dew will then 
moisten and refresh the feet; the cool air will brace and revive the 
spirits. At such hours horses are always full of animation. At mid- 
day the creatures incline to repose. The animals, during the greatest 
heat, congregate under trees, hang the heads, and only by the nervous 
stamping of the feet or the lashing of the tails, testify to being conscious 
of the myriads which buzz around them. 

No animal should be trained with a weight upon the back. It should 
be led by a man, mounted upon an older horse. The exercise should 
never be carried beyond that which is needed to support the health ; it 
cannot possibly be otherwise than injurious, when it is pushed to the 
point of exhaustion. It betrays the folly of the present system, when 
we hear a trainer assert that the legs and feet cannot endure the work 
necessary to promote "condition." Condition could be induced without 
a single gallop. Trotting — easy motion — is all that is absolutely im- 
perative; only the exercise should continue longer than is at present 
usual on training ground. A horse thus conditioned would be brought to 
the post with its energies fresh for the trial — ^not lamed, nearly crippled, 
nor thoroughly enervated. 

Breaking and training both require serious revision. The first needs 
to be made level with the improved civilization and gentler habits of the 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 469 

present time ; whereas it is now almost that which it has been from the 
earlier period of authentic record. 

No notice is taken of the presence of railways ; of the general custom 
of using fire-arms; of discharging fire-works, or the almost universal 
habit of gas illumination; not to mention the various strange sights 
and novel exhibitions which the modern streets and highways fre- 
quently display. Accidents, neither few nor far between, are provoked 
by these things ; but the breaker, nevertheless, refuses to acknowledge 
their existence. He views his duties as perfected, and as needing or 
admitting of no improvement ! 

So also the trainer. His system has been only influenced by the evils 
generated through the customs which he obeys. Beyond the race-course, 
he sees and acknowledges nothing. Railways bring crowds down to all 
the great contests ; but he still trains his horses to run in stillness and 
in solitude. Many quadrupeds "shut up," when the people shout: the 
cause of this conduct the trainer refuses to recognize. Numerous ani- 
mals only show their qualities after age has familiarized them with the 
tumult of the mob ; still, the trainer can see no intimation in so evident 
a sequence, although intimately associated as cause and effect. 

Then, with respect to aloes. This drug should be discarded altogether. 
Neither should any of the diflTerent nostrums, now common in the stable, 
be employed. Supposing the abdomen to be larger than is desirable, its 
amendment should be controlled by condensed diet, and sufficient but 
easy exercise. An occasional drachm dose of iodide of iron, which 
medicine is both an absorbent and a tonic, may, at long intervals, be 
exhibited. Where costiveness prevails, a bran mash or two, with a 
bundle of green meat, would counteract the symptom. To improve 
the coat, liquor arsenicalis, in ounce doses, should be administered ; for 
this preparation operates upon the integument, by strengthening the 
body. 

The trainer may exclaim against green meat; but it does not retard 
condition or generate weakness like aloes, and if employed as a medicine, 
it is of all importance. Beyond the drugs mentioned, nothing should be 
given, save under professional advice : the lockers should be cleared of 
all medicinal agents. Other compounds are not quite abolished; but 
these should be exhibited only by the veterinary surgeon — the quad- 
ruped being physicked as little as possible. When trained after the 
method which has been indicated, all the dangers of the process would 
be avoided : the health, not the judgment of any interested individual, 
would declare whether the instructions had been obeyed, or the orders 
had been violated. Mystery and impudence would be rendered inoper- 
ative, and every animal started for a race should return to the post. 



470 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

Many of the starters should not, as now, be left, blown, crippled, or 
exhausted, in the middle of the course. 

There is an enemy which the trainer little suspects, but which affects 
the health and the honesty of his establishment. No regulation can be 
rigidly carried out, when its adoption is dependent upon the whim and 
the humor of those undersized lads who lounge about the door of every 
training stable. These boys are not half employed : they delight to 
excel each other in "larks," in daring, and in mischief. They are very 
seldom trustworthy. The reason which causes them to be retained, is 
the lightness of their bodies. Their duty is to groom and to ride the 
animals which are placed under the trainer's charge. But the first busi- 
ness is lightened by a series of unfeeling antics ; the last is the act which 
very few of these youths can properly perform. They get into the 
saddle and manage to remain there ; but how far they study anything 
more than that, is demonstrated by so few of the urchins being pro- 
moted to jockeys, for which calling the trainer's stable should be the 
regular entrance. 

Many a horse will refuse to win a race from stubbornness of temper. 
When the way is clear before it, the racer not unfrequently "shuts up," 
and cannot be induced to exert its ability or to win. Whence is derived 
that perversity which loves to thwart the power a slave lives but to 
obey ? It is not natural to the breed or to the tribe. Pass through a 
flock of yearlings, and the path is interrupted, positively impeded, by a 
host of velvet noses, each demanding to be noticed. Way is difficult to 
be made through so much importunate affection ! However, walk down 
the gangway of the two-year old stalls in any trainer's stable, and " 'ware 
horse," "'ware heels," is frequently shouted out, while the excess of 
white displayed by each animal's eye palpably denotes the reason of the 
warning. 

The trainer may as well break the leg of a colt as ruin its temper. 
The spirit cannot be right, when the temper, which governs it, is per- 
manently warped. The power to win is of no service, if the inclination 
to exert it does not also exist. The boys tease and plague the creatures, 
whose fate is, by the rules of training, not so blissful as to admit of such 
insults being patiently endured. The act offends, and engenders a 
desire of resentment, which constitutes the "jolly fun" of the lads. 
The more excitable a colt may be, the more valuable it is likely to prove 
to its owner ; but in proportion to its value is the animal exposed to the 
pranks which may ruin its chances in the struggle. These things, of 
course, are not practiced with the trainer's knowledge ; but, nevertheless, 
they are all but universal, and will become more general if the custom 
of employing uneducated boys is not abolished. 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 4tl 

Another foolish practice is the starving all animals when most in need 
of support. This is common with racers and with hunters. When 
extra energy is imperative, the trainer, by his conduct, pursues the 
measure best calculated to destroy all inclination for exertion. The 
plea urged in defense of such folly is, that a loaded stomach oppresses 
the breathing. This is true enough ; but the evils which result from 
gluttony do not establish that good only can ensue upon starvation. 
Let the trainer experiment upon himself, and decide whether a light 
meal or no meal at all is the better preparation for an extraordinary 
performance. Many trainers assert that a full stomach rests upon the 
diaphragm, and thereby is detrimental to the respiration. This is a 
mistake. The digestive sac is pendent beneath the respiratory agent; 
a fact which an inspection of the annexed engraving will amply illus- 
trate. 




DIAGRAM, TO ILLUSTRATE THE RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE STOMACH AND OF THE DIAPHRAGM. 

1. The luags. 2. The stomach. 3. The jatestines. 4. The diaphragm. 6. The bladder. 

If the horse is about to follow the hounds, let a meal of concentrated 
nourishment be presented. This may consist of a quart of softened 
malt, or a two-pound stale loaf, moistened with fluid, or a few soaked 
ship biscuits, or anything of the like nature. This quantity must drive 
away the pangs of hunger, and the languor attending the sensation; 
but the author confidently asserts the impossibility of such a repast 
proving detrimental to the respiration. Then, let every gentleman, who 
follows the chase, put into each coat-tail pocket a penny loaf When a 
check occurs, the rider should dismount, and, having soaked one portion 
of the bread in any brook or pool, present it to his steed. Such a quan- 



4T2 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



tity would be indeed only a snack ; but it would be a welcome refresh- 
ment. It would serve to repel the approach of inanition, and enable the 
quadruped to join with spirit in the next " break away." 

On the course, excess of weakness has lost raany a race. Why should 
such a system be longer pursued ? Why are famishing animals, when 
prostrated by the want of nourishment, enervated by actual hunger and 
by thirst, only considered qualified to exhibit fleetness ? Is not the idea, 
when plainly stated, a self-evident fallacy ? Nor is it the only error 




FED BETWEEN THE BDRST3. 



which besets the antiquated customs of the trainer. It is usual to 
change the shoes, in which the animal is to run, for what are termed 
"plates," or, in other words, for shoes so light that fearful accidents are 
reported to have occurred from these inadequate protectors of the hoof. 
Such things have broken during the violence of the contest. Is there 
not a foppery in the notion of making a horse's shoe so slight that it 
shall lose its property of protection, to gain which advantage alone 
caused the animals to be shod ? 

All men who have written about the horse agree in regarding the 
shoe as an evil only to be endured because of its necessity. Its chief 
injuries are accomplished by fettering the quarters as well as the heels, 
also by throwing the elastic frog out of use. Upon the action of these 
very parts of the horse's foot the bound, the spring, and the grace of the 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



i13 



animal in no small degree depend. The operation of such organs should, 
therefore, be of more importance to the thorough -bred than they are to 
any other description of quadruped. Were these structures never fet- 
tered, but the colt left to comprehend their use, its agility would be 
increased, its stride would be lengthened, and its speed augmented. 

The racer chiefly employs the toe to bear weight upon, or this part 
has to endure nearly all the stress sustained by the hoof while the 
creature is running. Now, there are shoes known as "tips" which pro- 
tect the forward horn, but which leave the elasticity of the backward 
portions of the foot unfettered. This form of shoe is no novelty. It is 
no crotchet of the author's, puffed into notice by a morbid fancy. It is 
very humiliating, but it is necessary to make such an acknowledgment, 
to take from a recommendation all suspicion of the personal or inter- 
ested motives which are too frequently urged against those who advocate 
any improvement in stable practice. The author is impelled to make 
the suggestion simply by his interest in the subject. That the reader 
may comprehend the difference between the two forms of shoe, and re- 
spectively denominated a plate and a tip, the illustrations of each are 
here reproduced from the article on Shoeing. 






A MODERN EACING SHOE. 



AN ANCIENT RACIXO SUOE. 



A greater injury is inflicted, however, than has yet been named. 
Blood horses are often afiected with brittle hoofs. This condition of 
horn renders the nailing on of shoes, even in ordinary cases, a matter 
of some difficulty. It is a principle with smiths never, if possible, to 
drive a nail twice into the same hole; and these fastenings being made 
to pierce the hard outer covering of the wall, the hold is, at all times, in 
danger of breaking away ; but when the horn is abnormally dry or brit- 
tle, the nails can scarcely be rendered secure by any possible artifice. 

The kind of hoof which prevails among the breed renders it very 
desirable that the shoes generally worn should never be changed. Tips 
being of smaller size especially, if a bit of steel were let in upon the toe, 



474 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 



if the shoe was formed of the very best metal, as the animal is invaria- 
bly exercised upon turf, need not be much heavier, if at all weightier, 
than the present racing plate. Any difference which possibly should 
exist would, however, be counterbalanced by a healthy condition of horn 
induced by the greater freedom that must be consequent upon an adop- 
tion of the proposed plan; while if a slight additional burden be im- 
posed, that must be much more than counteracted by the new organs to 
be brought into activity. The frog and the heels, which are now made 
useless, would lend lightness to the tread, and an ease of motion would 
thereby be secured. 

Another evil is produced by the peculiar notions which the order of 
trainers have for ages stubbornly adopted, and which gentlemen of edu- 
cation seem to have implicitly accepted. Man himself is not more gre- 
garious than the horse. Men congregate in towns ; but it is not unusual 




BUMM£R£D. 



to encounter the individual whose delight is solitude. The equine race, 
when free to exercise a choice, are always seen in flocks ; and a solitary 
animal is never to be met with. Yet it has been found that the severity 
of eight months' solitary imprisonment cannot be sustained by human 
culprits. The trainer, however, permits his countenance to radiate un- 
der the smiles of benevolence, when he talks of turning an animal into 



BREAKING AND TRAINING. 415 

a loose box and of granting the prisoner more than half a year of rest. 
He never appears to think, nor does his employer seem to think for him, 
whether such a notion be possible. No one, apparently, questions 
whether stagnation can be a punishment to the living embodiment of 
muscular activity 1 We see the heads of quadrupeds, wearing the im- 
press of dejection and looking the images of hopeless misery, hanging 
over the doors of their cells ; but no one reads the lessons which such 
melancholy spectacles plainly indicate. The language of truth is not 
understood, and cruelty is perpetuated by ignorance. 

When such things are general through the land, is it not justice which 
has stigmatized England as "the hell of horses?" Does not the heart 
shudder, as it contemplates the sufferings which have for ages been per- 
petrated upon the most generous and most self-sacrificing of man's 
many helpmates ? Why doom a quadruped to months of positive stag- 
nation? What is it that converts the intended generosity, where the 
horse is concerned, into an excuse for actual torture ? Why is every act 
and every intent, when directed to this creature, made to augment and 
to increase its present load of most unmerited suffering ? 

Wherefore should the hunter, when the season is over, be shut up or 
cast aside, as though its life or its feelings were unworthy of considera- 
tion ? It would be better for the quadruped's health and its happiness, 
if the attentions to its personal comfort were continued. It would repay 
the trouble, were it regularly groomed, and fed upon the stable proven- 
der. Not turned into a box ; its body being, for half a year, uncleansed, 
and its health being debilitated by a superabundance of green fodder. 
It would thrive better, were it gently hacked by a considerate proprietor. 
Taken out occasionally, and quietly ridden down the shady green lanes 
of the neighborhood. Never bustled, but sometimes breathed over an 
even piece of turf Ridden always for pleasure, but never saddled when 
business is to be transacted. Such a life might not allow the groom so 
much leisure ; but it would materially lessen his labors when the hunting 
season approached. The animal would need but little '^conditioning.''^ 
Improper sustenance would not have induced dropsy; nor would the 
joints have stiffened by a long period of enforced inactivity. 

In conclusion, no horse should be considered fit for general purposes 
until it has been educated to stand fire, — to hear the rush of sudden 
noises without alarm, and to remain quiet while a railway whistle is 
sounded by its rider. Were such things taught, how much misery 
would be avoided I But the public, as a body, have no faith in good- 
ness, although they profess to believe that the All-good is the All-wise. 

Does it not sound like a fabrication, to say that in the land where 
many barbarities are openly practiced by the higher orders of society, 



4T6 BREAKING AND TRAINING. 

there should exist a combination, supported by the rich, established to 
suppress cruelty when perpetrated by the lower classes ? The society 
alluded to should not be abolished. As an institution, it is right. But 
are the patrons in their proper positions, when punishing cruelty to 
animals? The highest personage heads both the doings of the race- 
course and the coiporation which professes humanity. But which is 
worst — the sin which, for its pleasure, tortures the young, or the want 
which, hardened by adversity, disregards the pangs of the aged ? Let 
the society be continued; but let the race-course also be amended. 
Render it a rational amusement : let it no longer remain the dominion 
of vice, upheld for gambling purposes, and maintained by the heartless 
waste of that life of which man, in gratitude, should assert his right to 
be the natural protectoi. 



CHAPTER XY. 

CARRIAGES — THEIR COST, THEIR MAKE, THEIR EXCELLENCES, AND THEIR 

MANAGEMENT. 

The following particulars are derived from the highly respectable 
establishment of Edwin Kesterton, (late Horn,) a well-known firm which 
transacts business at No. 93 Long Acre. The writer is directly indebted 
for the facts now stated to the generosity of Mr. John Ronald, the gen- 
tleman to whose intelligence is intrusted the conduct of the before-named 
business. If an extended observance, assisted by years of experience, 
can lend value to information, certainly Mr. Ronald may advance a good 
plea to be heard when speaking upon such a topic. And the editor can- 
not forbear expressing a profound sense of personal obligation for the 
unreserved and satisfactory manner in which all statements were com- 
municated, and unhesitatingly submitted to the writer's discretion. In 
short, Mr. Ronald's mode of communicating his knowledge speedily 
gained the confidence of his listener; but as individual characteristics 
cannot be embodied in a written declaration, the circumstance is only 
mentioned, to assure the reader that the following details are worthy of 
his acceptance and deserving of his consideration. 

Carriages are of various kinds ; they differ very widely as to cost. 
Every maker will manufacture every variety which may not be under 
the protection of the Patent Office, Certain houses, however, may be 
famed for a certain description of conveyances, — as that of Tilbury for 
the gig, which is known by the name of its inventor. 

The following statement of charges is to be regarded only as a prob- 
able approximation to the cost of those articles which are specified. 
Nothing assuming the form of a definite figure could be named, because 
the orders given by gentlemen are so essentially opposite. Thus one 
may be contented with a simple crest or two ; but another will insist 
that his vehicle shall display the fullest heraldic adornments. Such 
differences in taste regulate the extremes which divide the charges 
made for the same description of article when furnished by two equally 
respectable manufacturers. 

The gentlemen who profess Herald painting are remunerated accord- 

(477) 



478 CARRIAGES. 

ing to the time occupied, the amount of work done, and the elaborateness 
of the design which has been executed. The scale may, to the unini- 
tiated, appear to be gifted with a great power of expansibility ; but this 
quality must reside in every form of art. Heraldic painting demands 
extreme exactitude ; for no liberty is allowable in this practice. Every- 
thing is strictly defined. All examples must be rigidly followed. Con- 
sequently, such a pursuit must be no inconsiderable tax upon the 
memory, while occasionally it necessitates the most laborious research. 
Such qualifications, moreover, should be paid for, when exercised merely 
for the gratification of another. 

To convey a rough idea of the expense of heraldic ornamentation, it 
may be stated that two simple crests painted on a gig might, probably, 
be executed for fifteen shillings. Coats of arms — such as were usually 
seen on the panels of carriages — begin at two guineas ; but the more 
elaborate embellishments of this description — even should they demand 
no research and require no particular skill — cannot be executed at a less 
cost than eight or ten guineas. State vehicles, however, generally abound 
in fanciful adornments. These have exceeded, for heraldic painting alone, 
four or sometimes five hundred guineas. Such a sum has been paid for 
the time, the labor, and the talent bestowed upon a single carriage which, 
when thus embellished, could be seldom used 1 

The foregoing figures possibly may surprise most readers ; but there 
are several circumstances to be considered as tending to justify such 
charges. In the first place, the community of Heraldic Painters are few 
in number ; and the uninviting character of their studies, with the pro- 
longed probation to be undergone before the novice is permitted to prac- 
tice the art, will probably prevent the body from ever becoming a large 
association. Then, the employment of the proficients is very much regu- 
lated by fashion, which does not, at present, appear disposed to favor 
the display of family honors. The pursuit, when regarded by itself, 
may be liberally recompensed. Yet it is not an every-day necessity ; 
but, being once finished, the work will probably endure for years, while 
the vehicles upon which the resources of the art are most expended are 
not articles of general use. Few heraldic painters, therefore, accumulate 
fortunes; but the great majority live to repent having adopted that 
which the reader may have felt inclined to regard as an extravagantly 
remunerated calling. 

Also, connected %vith the carriage builder's trade is a still smaller body 
of industrious and of deserving persons known as Coach Draftsmen. 
These are the artists who labor upon those neat and picturesque draw- 
ings which are always submitted for the approval of that gentleman 
who may order a new vehicle to be built. 



CARRIAGES. 4*79 

The primary requisite for such a profession is firmness, combined with 
extreme delicacy of touch ; an eye capable of appreciating the nicer rules 
of art, united to a mind fully endued with the elements of grace, or with 
that flow of line wliich is inseparable from all elegance of design. None 
of these qualities can be dispensed with in the person who embraces the 
pursuit. Much of the drawing is, no doubt, executed according to 
measure and to rule, or is purely mechanical; but the qualities which 
alone can fit an artist for eminence in his peculiar calling are assuredly 
governed by something very different from and far higher than the 
patient employment of the compass. 

Prior to considering the cost attending the manufacture of vai'ious 
vehicles, it may be proper to state some of the reasons that render an 
admirably built carriage apparently so expensive. While this is being 
done, the reader is requested to remember that the present time has 
frequently been designated as that of competition. Artificers are said 
to have become too numerous for all the members of any trade to live 
by the practices of honesty. The people following a particular business 
are reported to be more than half employed in cutting one another's 
throats. We are told that no sooner does the tradesman establish a 
thriving traffic, than another starts an opposition, and under-sells him. 

Certainly there is no realizing those snug profits which our fathers 
talked about having secured, during the termination of the last and the 
beginning of the present century. Carriage builders are not few in 
number, neither do they constitute a close society. They are numerous 
as a trade, and each member of the calling is eager to transact business. 
Still, the prices are not lowered by the spirit of competition. A good 
article is yet worth nearly the same money which it has always cost; 
and the patience of the reader is earnestly requested while an attempt 
is being hazarded to explain the cause of so prominent a peculiarity. 

Before a carriage can be properly built, the conjunction of many dis- 
tinct callings is imperative. They must all work together, and should 
all be actuated by harmony of spirit. The various parts are almost in- 
numerable ; but each must be adjusted with the minutest nicety. To 
collect, to retain, and to practice a body of men in such united labor to a 
common end ; to entice artisans, who can exhibit the perfection of their 
crafts, to relinquish all idea of individuality or of independence ; and to 
induce such people to blend their efforts or to allow only one spirit to 
actuate a large society, — is no mean undertaking. Yet this must be 
accomplished; nor is that all, for such contrary elements must be re- 
tained, each mutually assisting the other. 

As the proprietor succeeds in accomplishing this object, so will be his 
success in the coach building business. Let the reader, however, under- 



480 CARRIAGES. 

stand that a good set of workmen is not the only necessity required for 
this business. The tradesman must be himself distinguished by the 
loftiest of human attributes. He must be also willing to sink his indi- 
viduality in his pursuit, and must be ambitious only for a general result. 
The coach builder works with very expensive woods, the original cost 
of which is materially increased by the lengthened periods that these 
articles have to be kept before being used. The time required to season 
thoroughly a piece of timber, for the choicest of ordinary trades, would 
be altogether insufficient for the coach builder's purposes. "Wood must 
not only be seasoned, but it must be rendered so perfectly hard or dry 
as shall make shrinking or warping, even in the slightest degree, totally 
impossible. 

Such a necessity compels the coach builder to keep a large stock of 
the timber which he employs. This wood, when introduced to the work- 
shop, must be in a state of the utmost perfection. It must be possessed 
of the greatest strength and the most approved hardness which its fiber 
is capable of exhibiting. Those characteristics can only be attained 
where the material is particularly fine in grain. Of course, such a 
quality makes the substance specially retentive of that moisture which 
circulated throughout every product of the vegetable world. This last 
property gives rise to the necessity which obliges every log to be so long 
kept before the tradesman dare have the wood admitted within the pre- 
cincts of his established manufactory. 

The tools employed to cut such timber must needs be of exquisite 
temper, and of course are equally costly to purchase. Moreover, the 
simple cutting of wood almost as hard as metal is not sufficient. The 
workmen must be capable of adapting the various parts so closely that 
these shall, when put together, possess the strength of one entire piece. 
The several junctures must be imperceptible either to sight or to touch ; 
the different portions must fit as though they grew together. No 
amount of jolting, no possible shaking should cause the work to yield 
even a hair's breadth. Should the carriage be injured, though of course 
the paint must be damaged, nevertheless the frame should remain firm. 
Every part of the vehicle should be formed to endure the rudest treat- 
ment; should be able to sustain, uninjured, the long rattling over the 
roughest of country roads. Unless his products can bear such usage, 
no tradesman need write ^^ Coach Builder''^ subsequent to his name. 

The tools sold to carriage builders are quite distinct from those manu- 
factured for the cabinet-maker or the joiner. The first articles are known 
by different names, and are kept as a distinct class of superior goods. 
An ordinary chest of such tools, possessed by every average journey- 
man, could not be purchased under thirty, or probably forty pounds. 



CARRIAGES. 481 

This price, in order that it may be justly appreciated, must be regarded 
in connection with the class of men to whom it refers ; also it must be 
considered in association with the facts — that workmen provide their 
own tools, and that each man is confined to one particular species ot 
toil; that the members of every shop often borrow and as frequently 
lend; and that every tradesman is educated to adopt various resources 
Thus one instrument is often compelled to serve several uses. 

An ordinary carriage builder can generally command two guineas a 
week. That sum, however, does not fairly represent the earning of all 
workmen, when viewed as members of one body. Most clever artificers 
will not engage by the period ; but they prefer to be paid by the piece. 
A person of no more than average talent, when employed at piece-work 
on the ordinary run of jobs, can gain from two to three guineas by six 
days' toil. Thus every man in the trade has a direct stimulus to im- 
provement, the higher wages being a constant spur to excite the work- 
people, none but the better sort of whom are engaged on the more 
remunerative labor. 

Then, of the many trades which the coachmaker employs, each must 
be the perfection of its order. The upholstery must not be merely tacks 
or tacking. All must be sewn with the stoutest thread, and nailed with 
an intention that it should never loosen. The smith's work must be 
forged with an exactitude which is little expected in the general sphere 
of the anvil. The painting and the varnishing must be carried to the 
refinement of possible finish. In short, the best of many opposite call- 
ings must be united before a carriage manufactory can be instituted. 

The business which necessitates the junction of such adverse kinds of 
perfection, of course cannot be conducted cheaply. The climax of ability 
is a commodity which will always command a ready sale, and for which, 
in every market, there is never a lack of bidders. He who wishes to 
obtain it, must not, therefore, haggle about remuneration ; but be pre- 
pared to meet its demands with liberality. That circumstance, taken in 
conjunction with the expensive nature of all the materials he employs, 
disables the coachmaker, who is anxious to do justice to his patron and 
to himself, from producing a cheap article. 

A full dress coach or chariot, such as once were the only conveyances 
permitted to approach St. James's Palace on a Drawing Room day, 
cannot be properly made for a less sum than four hundred guineas ; if 
the taste of the customer should be very fastidious, either article may 
cost seven or even eight hundred guineas. A state carriage must be 
charged for according to its adornments, which can almost be carried to 
any extent. 

The state carriage which was built to order for a particular monarch 

31 



482 



CARRIAGES. 



had solid silver let in upon its exterior ; while the ground was composed 
of the choicest colors, overlaid by the most exquisite decorative painting. 




A DRESS CARRIAQE. 



A CHARIOT. 



The charge for this toy was seven thousand guineas. The Sheriffs of 
London, however, manage to ride in a state carriage at a more economi- 
cal rate. Their vehicles are commonly hired for the year of office ; and 
the expense is only varied by that amount of adornment which each new 
dignitary may please to command. The ordinary charges are seldom 
lower than eighty guineas, and are rarely higher than one hundred and 
sixty guineas. 




A BAROUCHE. 



A LANDAU. 



A neatly-built step-piece barouche is certainly an elegant conveyance, 
though, at the present moment, hardly so popular as it was a few years 
ago. Vehicles, like most other things, are subject to the arbitrary dic- 
tates of fashion, and this circumstance renders the coachmaker's stock, 
which must at all times be costly, particularly hazardous. However, 
the risk which is inseparable from the character of the trade must be 
covered by the profit account when the books are balanced. A good 
barouche is an expensive luxury; since this conveyance cannot be 
manufactured under one hundred and sixty guineas, while it may, with- 
out much extravagance, be easily made to cost two hundred and twenty 
guineas. 

The landau, which has now become almost the exclusive property of 
the ladies, is even more expensive than the barouche. But with this 
fact it may be necessary also to state that the landau requires to be 
especially well built, and must be highly finished in every part. It 



CARRIAGES. 



483 



ought to be particularly light in appearance, and so nicely balanced 
upon its springs that, though perfectly firm, the touch from a finger 
nevertheless could set the body in motion. Such properties necessitate 
the very best w'^orkmanship which can be procured, even in the carriage 
trade. Consequently, this kind of conveyance cannot be properly raised 
for a less price than two hundred guineas; but as the feminine taste 
appears to be more cheaply satisfied than are the masculine desires, the 
cost of an ordinary landau seldom rises above two hundred and fifty 
guineas. 




A CARWAOE ■VniHOCT C SPRINGS. 



A BROUGHAM. 



A coach without the circular springs, or C springs, as they are com- 
monly called, and also wanting a dickey or seat behind, is now manufac- 
tured according to various patterns. This kind of conveyance is, at 
present, frequently encountered in the streets of London. Of course, it 
is difficult to name the price of an article which is generally built in ac- 
cordance with some arbitrary command, and which is not governed by 
any acknowledged regulation. The cost, therefore, can only be controlled 
by the time, the labor, and the materials which are expended in the con- 
struction ; but this may be roughly calculated at something between one 
hundred and ninety and three hundred guineas. Such, howevei', are 
light and pleasant carriages, sufficiently roomy to ride at ease in, and 
not difficult to propel. They are rapidly ascending on the scale of 
public favor. 

Broughams seem to be made of various forms : some vehicles bearing 
this name are very little better than the more cleanly order of street cabs. 
But such a brougham as no gentleman need be ashamed to own, or need 
blush to see his crest emblazoned on, should be built for one hundred 
and thirty to one hundred and eighty guineas. These vehicles have 
been much improved of late. They were formerly manufactured of 
a weight which was a severe tax upon the strength of one horse, and 
they were at once vulgar both in appearance and in size. The draught 
has been greatly diminished, while the aspect has been so far improved 
as to advance a claim to elegance. Those proprietors who still cling to 
a brougham which can accommodate more than two persons usually 



484 CARRIAGES. 

have ttc equipage drawn by two small horses. The carriage, thus pro- 
pelled, looks showy, and is moved with perfect ease. 

A mail phaeton may occasionally be seen driven through the park. 
But this form of vehicle is not now so much used as it was a few years 
ago ; but when well appointed, it certainly has a most aristocratic ap- 
pearance. Few ladies, however, like to ride in such a conveyance, 
unless they occupy a seat in the front compartment, and are accom- 
panied by the husbands, who are driving. Such a prejudice consigns 
half of this carriage to the servants, while the length of the phaeton 
renders its draught so heavy as to necessitate the employment of two 
horses. Custom, therefore, makes these vehicles expensive to the pro- 
prietors, although the first cost is not so large as the style suggests. 
One hundred and forty guineas or one hundred and sixty guineas will 
generally cover the purchase of the mail phaeton. 





A MAIL PHAETO;f. A FOCP.-WHEELED DOG CART. 

The four-wheeled "dog cart" has lately come into general use. Such 
conveyances possess a more gentlemanly, and have an infinitely less 
dangerous appearance, than the two-wheeled "turn outs" bearing a 
similar designation. When driven with a pair of spirited horses, they 
may proceed at almost any pace with perfect ease and safety ; running 
very light, yet affording ample accommodation for every portion of the 
load, and looking the perfection of a sporting "concern." They are, 
moreover, when compared with the sums at which the more showy 
properties of most carriages are purchased, not to be esteemed expen- 
sive. A good article of this description can be bought for seventy 
guineas, and the most elaborated seldom costs more than one hundred 
and twenty guineas. 

Gigs of different denominations are mostly of one price. This figure 
ranges from forty to seventy guineas. It matters not the shape, whether 
it be a Stanhope or a two-wheeled dog cart, the expense is pretty much 
the same. The last form of vehicle is now coming into very general 
use ; but when fully loaded, it appears dangerous, and is a severe tax 
upon animal strength when driven at the rate which most drivers seem 
to prefer. Hence the obvious origin of the four-wheeled dog cart, which, 



CARRIAGES. 486 

when harnessed to a pair of horses, is free from those objections that the 
original form of this conveyance invariably suggested. 





A TWO-WHEELED DOQ CART. 



A well-built carriage is, consequently, a rather expensive convenience ; 
but, unfortunately for the honest tradesmen, few persons are qualified to 
advance an opinion vipon the conveyance. The reader, therefore, must 
accord his indulgence while the author endeavors to explain the points 
which characterize a well-manufactured article. In the first place, the 
wheels should revolve without perceptibly varying from the line which 
they indicated when the carriage was stationary and the tires were 
viewed from behind. They should not, during rotation, incline either to 
the right or to the left, for if they, when in motion, alter even a hair's 
breadth from such a line, it is proof positive that the wheels are faulty. 
They should move slowly and quickly without making the slightest 
sound : they should glide noiselessly over all even surfaces, and with no 
more audible disturbance than is unavoidable, they should travel, at the 
most rapid pace, over the roughest highway. , 

The body should be poised so evenly as will answer to the gentlest 
force, and be readily swayed by more violent action ; but however ex- 
cited it may be, the body should never lean to either side, and, the im- 
petus being arrested, it should speedily become stationary. All the 
parts should be firmly united. When violently urged, the movements 
should elicit no creaking; the steps should not jingle; the windows 
should not rattle ; and, above all, when the outlets are shut, a person 
inside should be incommoded by no perceptible draught. 

That time may not injure such properties, the coach-house should be 
warm, should be well aired, and should be perfectly dry. Damp is 
ruinous to the paint, to the ornaments, and, in short, to every part of a 
conveyance. As the most used carriage must be a greater number of 
hours within its house than it can possibly be abroad, so for the larger 
portion of its existence is it exposed to the operation of those enemies 
(when any exist) which will be silently destroying. The length of time 
which a vehicle improperly housed may endure, will of course greatly 
be dependent upon the amount of evil with which it has to contend ; 
but only a moderate degree of moisture will so speedily tarnish as shall 



486 CARRIAGES. 

necessitate restoration at least twelve months prior to the usual season 
for that renovating process. 

A good coach-house should neither by door nor by window communi- 
cate with the stable. Such openings are usually present in most London 
buildings, and are evidently allowed either from thoughtlessness or from 
a greater feeling for the servant's convenience than regard for that which 
the servant is engaged to keep in order. The fumes of the stable prin- 
cipally consist of ammonia or of the volatile alkali. These emanations, 
fi'om manure made pungent by the exclusion of atmospheric air, are 
very insidious in their effects, and are much more destructive than either 
of the fixed anti-acids, potash or soda. 

Most coachmen are aware that the employment of soap, in any form, 
is injurious to paint and to varnish. Soap, however, is a salt, or consists 
of an alkali, which is neutralized or combined with a fatty acid. Still 
alkali, even in this shape, should not be applied to any conveyance. 
The idea of dissolving potash or soda in water, and then employing the 
liquid to cleanse the family carriage, appears to be so preposterous as to 
be rejected even by the ingenious ignorance of the stable. But a single 
application of the last agents would do less damage than the long ex- 
posure of a vehicle to the more penetrating fumes of gaseous ammonia. 

Another subject of much importance to the carriage interest — but 
one not generally considered by the majority of proprietors — is the kind 
of water with which the stable is supplied. Coachmen commonly think 
to counteract the ill effects of bad water upon the horses, by exposing 
pails filled with the liquid, for some hours, within the tainted interior of 
the stable. But the fluid is more likely to become foul from the impuri- 
ties which it can there absorb, than for the action of ammoniacal gas to 
amend the properties or to correct the evil qualities of the liquid. 

Hard water, especially that which is impregnated with a solution of 
any mineral substance, is equally prejudicial to the health of animals and 
to the beauty of vehicles. Such should never be employed in any stable. 
Soft water or river water is alone suited for either purpose. Pipe water, 
or water which has traveled far in leaden tubes, is frequently impure ; 
while pump or well water should always be avoided. 

This may to many readers appear a trivial matter to be so energeti- 
cally enforced ; but as all the comforts of life are only secured by atten- 
tion to those particulars which surround existence, certainly the pocket 
of the master is concerned in the conditions to which his carriage is 
exposed. 

Many gentlemen, however, will permit the servants to ruin the best- 
made carriage, and then blame the builder, because his work is capable 
of being abused. When the family returns home at midnight, after the 



CARRIAGES. 487 

necessities of the horses have been attended to, the vehicle should be 
thoroughly sluiced with cold water, so that not a speck of dirt remain 
clinging to the paint. At whatever hour the residence may be reached, 
this operation should never be neglected. The free and copious employ- 
ment of fluid floated over the varnish is imperative, and (as will be 
explained hereafter) prevents serious damage. 

There is no occasion, at so late a period, when extreme hours have 
probably indisposed the servants for exertion, that the carriage should 
be regularly cleansed with brush, mop, and pail ; but a large watering- 
pot, kept ready for such uses, will, in a very brief space and without 
much trouble, pour forth a steady stream of liquid, and float off the 
loose fresh mud by the simple action of gravitation. This done, the 
superabundant moisture will have run off the varnish, which was first 
sluiced, and the surface may be roughly dried with a sponge. All being 
accomplished, the coachman may safely delay his regular routine of 
duties until he rises on the following morning. 

The reason which necessitates a carriage to be immediately washed, 
whenever it returns home soiled, is quickly stated. If wet mud be per- 
mitted to continue and to dry upon the surface, a white, opaque spot 
will afterward indicate the place to which the dirt adhered. Moreover, 
a vehicle which is invariably left in its coat of filth until the following 
morning, always requii'es repainting and revarnishing twelve months, 
and very often two years, before the general period for restoration, when 
the opposite and the more careful measures are adopted. 

Should a carriage have to wait the convenience of its master, it should 
never rest in the full blaze of the sunshine. Where a choice is possible, 
the careful servant always withdraws into the shade. It is even worth 
while that pride should so far sacrifice its feelings as to sanction such a 
precaution ; for the cool shadow is not only more pleasant for the horses, 
but is infinitely better than the extreme of glare and heat for the convey- 
ance to which the animals are harnessed. 

The excess of light causes the varnish to crack, and removes the gloss 
from the smartest vehicle. The smooth and the highly polished surface 
suffers ; this, of course, injures the deeper structures. Should the carriage 
have been purchased from an honest builder, there is small danger of 
any degree of warmth affecting the main structure ; but if the custom 
of standing in the sunshine is sanctioned, the paint will not last longer 
than three years, while, even for that period, the effect will not be good ; 
since the cracks in the varnish serve as gutters wherein soil will ac- 
cumulate. 

The well-built body of a regular carriage should remain together 
while three sets of wheels are used up. The arbitrary dictates of 



488 CARRIAGES. 

fasnion, however, interfere with the economy which was, formerly, gen- 
erally observed. Few, save the titled or the old aristocratic families, at 
present keep what once was the recognized build of every private car- 
riage. The conveyances now manufactured for the moneyed and the 
respectable classes are built according to no common model; but the 
forms are moulded by the dictates of most arbitrary caprice. The article 
therefore which, when it was newly built, excited surprise and kindled 
emulation, shall, before it has existed eight years, provoke contempt, 
as a lumbering concern altogether behind the spirit of the age. Con- 
sequently, the duration being limited, (and a set of wheels being cal- 
culated, with ordinary work and care, to last four years,) not many of 
the lighter and more novel vehicles can be used for a longer period than 
suffices to wear two-thirds of the stated number. 

A set of wheels hardly ever cost the same price, when made for ve- 
hicles of different descriptions. A brougham and a carriage both 
possess four wheels ; yet the charges made for each kind are very op- 
posite. The wheels proper for a carriage cost fourteen or twenty 
guineas; whereas those which are fittest for a brougham can be made 
for ten guineas. Then, again, the gig requires only two wheels ; but 
the pair are generally sold at six guineas. These variations are regu- 
lated by the extent of the circumference, the substance necessitated, and 
by many particulars which the reader can readily imagine. Wheels are, 
therefore, somewhat expensive; a fresh supply is rendered the more 
costly, because the newness of one part makes imperative the renovation 
of the whole ; although some persons avoid such a consequence by 
having the wheels and the body of a carriage of different colors. How- 
ever, such piebald affairs always betray the intention, and the idea of 
exposing a personal meanness has, hitherto, prevented the practice from 
being generally adopted. 

The good and the careful coachman can only display the value of his 
services when there is no stint of those appliances which are imperative 
for the proper exercise of his calling. It is always necessary that the 
master's economy should afford no ready excuse for neglect of duty in 
the servant. This is important, because no domestic, excepting the 
groom, has such valuable and such perishable property intrusted to his 
discretion. Paint and varnish are not enduring commodities. Most 
London houses are redecorated every third year; with all care, a car- 
riage will appear respectable but one term longer. 

For the proper discharge of his duties, the coachman requires three 
sponges and three leathers for the body of the vehicle. One sponge to 
cleanse the coarser dirt from the carriage ; another to remove any linger- 
ing soil; while the third serves to render the surface somewhat dry, 



CARRIAGES. 



489 




A WHEEL SETTtR. 



previous to the employment of the leathers. For the wheels a setter, 

or a machine to raise them from the ground, cannot be dispensed with ; 

a mop and a pail to remove the dirt; a 

brush to cleanse the angles ; also sponges 

and leathers to thoroughly purify or polish 

the surface — all are needed. There should 

also be a superior brush for the lining; 

and another brush, with an additional 

leather, to brighten the brass or plated 

ornaments upon the exterior. 

To polish the last, no preparation ex- 
cels prepared chalk, when mixed with soap 
and water. It thoroughly removes every 

impurity, without sensible wear of the substance to which it is applied. 
In this last particular, it possesses an immense advantage over the gritty 
pastes sold for the purpose of polishing metals ; for this material acts 
chemically and mechanically on such surfaces. The prepared chalk may, 
moreover, be purchased at every chemist's, the charge commonly being 
a shilling for the pound ; while the other ingredients are found in every 
household. 

In one respect, few servants are sufficiently careful. They imagine 
whitening and other filths are indispensable when glass is to be cleaned. 
The prejudice originates in ignorance ; for glass requires nothing except 
two leathers, or a sponge and a leather, to render it perfectly bright. 
The first article should be merely moist, the intention being to loosen 
or to remove the superficial dirt. After this has been accomplished, the 
dry leather is brought into play to cleanse and to polish the metal. By 
such an easy and so simple a resort are prevented those accumulations 
round the edges of windows, and the soiled condition of the frames 
which disgrace too many carriages, and which certainly would generate 
no regret if rendered altogether impossible. 

The lining does not need so much care as might be imagined. Unless 
the weather be hot and the roads very dusty, it will hardly require more 
than a single brushing. A brown holland cover for the interior has 
become general; but such a thing, when soiled, should never be sent to 
the family washerwoman. The article may come home washed, starched, 
and ironed to perfection ; but in these processes it is sadly stretched and 
pulled out of shape. The holland never sets well afterward, and very 
speedily requires the cleansing to be repeated. 

The proper method, and not the dearest in the end, is to return such 
things to the carriage-maker, by whom such matters are understood; 
the article will be returned cleansed and calendered, looking like new 



490 



CARRIAGES. 



material and with no part strained or stretched till it does not fit into 
its relative situation. 

When speaking of cleaning, it may be as well to caution the reader 
against purchasing the requisites for cleaning his carriage of the nearest 
tradesman or at the cheapest shop. Such goods should all be of a supe- 
rior description, or of a kind which is not encountered in the stock of 
most dealers. They cannot be purchased for a less sum than three 
pounds ten shillings, if the quality is to be excellent ; and it is always 
better to commission the carriage builder to procure them than to risk 
obtaining worthless articles. 

Most vehicles, whether mounted upon two or four wheels, are furnished 
with mats or small carpets, though the nature of these articles are better 

represented by such things being desig- 
nated "rugs." These "rugs" are com- 
monly of two sorts : one kind being 
known as "Brussels," the other being 
termed "pile." The last, of any figure, 
always strike the beholder as not hav- 
ing been specially made for the situation 
which the article occupies. The Brus- 
sels are not open to the same objection, 
having an ornamental center, surrounded 
by a complex border. However, the 
coachman should always carefully at- 
tend to the rug every morning; because, as the pavement has to be 
crossed every time the passenger leaves or enters the conveyance, that 
upon which the feet rest is more likely to be soiled than any other 
portion of the interior. 

Moist mud upon the surface of the rug should never be interfered 
with. The soil should invariably be permitted to become dry prior to 
its removal being attempted. Then the ofi'ending patch is more quickly 
displaced by rubbing the sides smartly together, or by passing a clean 
besom briskly but not heavily over the place, than by those numerous 
gentler measures which occupy more time in performance and are more 
wearing in their operation. All dirt being removed, no further brushing 
is required ; but the rug, after having been beaten against any door post, 
(but that of the stable,) may be replaced in the carriage. All rugs should 
be similarly treated, and should be always removed every morning; be- 
cause grit will necessai'ily accumulate upon the floor, and thus cause 
much more wear than can be occasioned by the feet alone. 

As concerns those things which the wheels require, the coachman 
should observe three matters, which are all specially important : screw- 




A PILE AND A BRUSSELS CARRIAGE CARPET 
PLACED TOGETHER. 



CARRIAGES. 491 

ing on the box or the central cover ; oiling the axletrees ; and perpetu- 
ally noticing the wear which the tire, or the marginal rim of metal, 
undergoes. With regard to the box, that should be screwed until the 
wheel turns steadily, evenly, and pleasantly. Should sensible effort be 
requisite to put the wheel in motion, the necessity for force is proof posi- 
tive that the box has been screwed too tightly, or that it has been made 
to press too hardly against the wheel, which it should merely help to 
retain in its position. Such a compression, acting upon all four of the 
wheels, will increase the draught threefold, the action being the same as 
a break when it is applied to check the perilous downward progress of 
any vehicle. 

Inferior axle-trees soon wear with the friction of the wheels which 
rotate upon them. Colins's (expired patent) are, perhaps, the best; 
though the choice is somewhat extensive, and there is no article of this 
description which does not possess some merit. When the box will not 
screw steadily, and the case-hardening of the axle has worn off, the 
wheel is not, as many persons imagine, imminently dangerous; but its 
rotation becomes uneven, and the motion of the carriage is rendered less 
pleasant to the rider. The greasing or the oiling of the wheels, when 
the work is of the ordinary duration and character, is performed suffi- 
ciently often, if done once in three months. Quicker progression neces- 
sitates more constant attention; and the axles of a conveyance driven 
notoriously fast had better be inspected every week. 

Coachmen are not commonly negligent concerning such particulars. 
Neglect, however, would cause the grease to assume a solid form, and 
impede the motion. This effect causes an extra drag upon the collars 
of the horses ; and gentlemen, when the vehicle moves slowly, should, 
upon reaching home, see that the axles are properly greased, and the 
boxes are not screwed too hardly. 

The tires will sometimes outlast the wheels; but all depends upon 
the distance covered, the weight drawn, and the pace at which the 
vehicle is driven. Some gentlemen — especially medical gentlemen in 
full practice — will wear through a set of tires in eight or nine months, 
when the orders given are to move fast, and four changes are required 
to get through the daily visits. However, no person should risk riding 
in a carriage when the tires become perceptibly thin or loose. 

Small lamps are a mistake.. Diminutive lanterns may in some eyes 
look prettier during daytime ; but when they are used, the confined space 
does not allow the amount of oxygen to enter the interior which is re- 
quired to support the flame. The consequences are, diminished briUiancy 
and an abundance of smoke. The glasses become speedily soiled and 
the reflectors deadened. A lamp of sufficient size is not without its 



492 



CARRIAGES. 




A LARGE AND A SMALL LAMP. 



recommendations, as, even in daylight, it lends purpose and dignity to 

the vehicle which it adorns. At night it 
will nourish the flame, and cause the re- 
flectors to shine forth with almost dazzling 
effulgence. 

That it may do this, however, it is im- 
perative the proper kind of candles be con- 
sumed. Of candles, there are two kinds 
sold for carriages. One, which is the 
cheaper, is a composition that soon soft- 
ens under the combined effect of confined 
heat and strongly reflected flame. The 
light is not bad, but, nevertheless, is far 
from brilliant ; while the want of an essential property makes the candle 
dear, even when purchased at a lower price. The other light is the old, 
stout, wax candle, which, if procured from a respectable dealer, will burn 
brightly, and scarcely be affected, with regard to firmness, after the longest 
night journey has terminated. 

The carriage, when in the coach-house, should be covered and pro- 
tected from soil by a large brown holland envelope. Under such a pro- 
tection, it is usually placed with every door and window closed. The 
consequence is, that too many vehicles strike cold when entered, and 
communicate to the passenger a damp or musty smell. The interior is 
foul with imprisoned air ; and custom conserves the moisture natural to 
confinement. The appendage suggestive of luxury is thus rendered a 
dangerous possession. 

The brown holland covering will exclude the dust. Always, there- 
fore, leave the windows wide open whenever the carriage is in the house. 
The atmosphere of such a locality should be warm and dry. It will 
sweeten the interior, within which four people may have been seated 
and breathing for upwards of an hour on the night before, when the rain 
fell in torrents. It will freshen up the padded linings, and the mistress 
will be grateful for the care which the coachman has bestowed upon her 
comfort. 

The owners of carriages are not sufficiently careful when engaging 
the stable attendant. They often will, if there be a vehicle to look after, 
without hesitation hire a groom to perform the duty. When this is 
done, the gentleman infers that the man who can dress horses must 
necessarily comprehend everything that concerns the carriage to which 
horses are harnessed. Such an inference is certainl}^ not warranted by 
fact. A good groom professes to understand only horses ; and servants 
of this description are the coachmaker's aversion. It would assuredly 



CARRIAGES. 493 

be better for many parties could proprietors condescend to exercise a 
little more caution in this particular; as a capable dependent alone 
ought to be created potentate over all the contents of the stable. 

All that essentially concerns a carriage having now been stated, the 
subject, as the reader will have perceived, is not remarkably difficult to 
understand. A few questions, therefore, put to the candidate for a situa- 
tion, would speedily elicit whether the applicant comprehended the duties 
of that office which he aspired to undertake. Ignorance can by its mis- 
doing prove quite as harmful as the most designing malice. Much money 
and no little vexation would be spared could gentlemen practice a rea- 
sonable precaution before trusting in the discretion of a stranger. 

It was formerly a rule among the trade to allow five per cent, every 
year off the employer's bill as a gratuity to the servant. This custom 
was general, not only with the carriage builder, but with all persons who 
had dealings with the stable. It even extended to those whose services 
were only occasionally retained, involving the veterinary surgeon, the 
shoeing smith, etc. The reason upon which such a habit was based 
being a desire to bribe the coachman, that he might damage what the 
trades-people would be required to repair ; or, at all events, it was a fee 
commonly paid, hoping it would encourage the extravagance which it 
was the master's interest to restrain. "The good old days," however, 
are past ! Most cari'iage builders have learned, from experience, their 
best interests are promoted not by the fragility, but by the enduring 
quality of those articles which they supply. Most proprietors also know 
how long a sound conveyance should endure, as well as what ought to 
be the average cost for repairs. 

The more respectable houses, even now, certainly give trifling presents 
to the deserving domestics whom they encounter ; but such presents are 
bestowed rather to induce care than to encourage willful damage of the 
manufacture, for the tear and wear of which the donor is responsible. 
In proof of this, the head of an establishment may frequently be seen 
walking about, restless with pleasurable emotions, when a vehicle which 
was built by his house shall last a month or two over the regular period 
for renewal ; and the servant would therefore find he had embarked in a 
losing speculation, who should damage his master's property with the 
intent of increasing his occasional gratuity. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

SADDLERY, HARNESS, AND STABLE SUNDRIES OF WHAT THESE CONSIST J 

THEIR APPLICATION AND THEIR PRESERVATION. 

The ensuing particulars were communicated by Mr. Thomas Sains- 
bury, Junr., the skillful foreman to a well-known and old-established 
firm — Messrs. Gibson & Co., of Coventry Street, Leicester Square. 
Proceeding from so trustworthy a source, the information cannot other- 
wise than merit implicit confidence ; for when descanting on the above 
subject, the author, being anxious to state only facts, deemed it better to 
seek instructions from an established tradesman rather than to employ 
such knowledge as he himself possessed; since, not being acquainted 
with every branch of the business, his opinions must necessarily be more 
or less speculative, or based upon probabilities. Having enjoyed the 
benefit of Mr. Sainsbury's unreserved communications, the writer rejoices 
at the resolution which he had formed ; and can only tender his sincerest 
thanks to Messrs. Gibson & Co. for the extreme liberality they have 
evinced throughout the transaction. 

Saddlery and harness making are two distinct branches of one occu- 
pation. Saddlery strictly implies only that furniture which fits a steed 
for the uses of its rider. Harness making signifies the manufacture of 
those trappings which are employed upon animals of draught. There 
are, also, other subdivisions recognized by the trade ; but on the present 
occasion these need not be particularly enlarged upon. 

Many men are expert at either kind of manufacture ; but the best 
workmen are those who devote themselves to one particular branch of 
the trade. Such can only find remunerative employment with the 
masters who can afibrd to keep an artisan constantly employed at the 
work in which he excels. 

Saddlers justly complain that a horse cannot be accurately fitted when 
the animal is fresh from a dealer's stable. A good saddle should be so 
exquisitely adapted to the body on which it is placed as scarcely to be 
moved, even by the action of the limbs. A tradesman approaches per- 
fection, therefore, in proportion as his trappings cleave to the trunk for 
(494) 




SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 495 

which they are manufactured. Such a desideratum necessitates that a 
precise measurement should be taken. Not only is length and breadth 
required, but the curves or shape of the body are also needed. The 
material employed by saddle-makers to ascertain such particulars is 
equally simple and efifective. It consists merely of a narrow slip of 
pliable sheet-lead, about two feet long, and doubled in the center, like 
a pair of compasses. Such a material will preserve the outline of that 
body on which it may be compressed, and is sufiBciently solid to retain 
any indentations made upon its substance ; thus it possesses those 
attributes which to the saddler are essentials. 

With such an article, the shape of the barrel, the sweep of the shoul- 
ders, and the hollow of the back can be accurately moulded, while even 
particulars can be ascertained; for lead 
demands little pressure to assume the 
figure of any substance over which it is 
bent, and will subsequently remain suf- 
ficiently fixed to permit of the lines, 
which have been modeled, being traced 
upon a sheet of paper. This process a baddle-tkee with the spring stirrup 

'■ ^ '^ '■ BAR ATTACHED. 

should always be observed ; but when 

a saddle has to be made, it does not constitute the "be all and the end 
all" of the tradesman's duty. The tree, or the wooden base of the future 
article, should invariably be tried on the horse before the furnishing is 
proceeded with, because a saddle cannot possibly be perfect when the 
foundation of the structure shall prove defective, and any error is more 
easily corrected before the article be further complicated. 

Nevertheless, it is obvious folly to have a saddle or a harness fitted to 
a quadruped while the body is loaded with fat, as the majority of horses 
are when fresh from the dealer's yard. At first no part should be accu- 
rately adjusted, but margin should be allowed for those subsequent alter- 
ations which are always imperative. After three or four months the 
dealer's "make up" usually subsides. Then each article will require to 
be overlooked, and may be amended to the animal's form, which probably 
will be preserved after it has been taken into regular work. 

The choice of leather is of primary importance to the manufacturer of, 
and to the dealer in, equine furniture. After the goods are made up, no 
man, excepting he be a regular workman, can possibly form an opinion 
concerning the material of which it is composed. Certain tradesmen, 
not of questionable respectability, are in the habit of ticketing cheap arti- 
cles to entrap chance customers. The dealers, however, do not always 
know the precise nature of the trash which they become the means of 
circulating. They, nevertheless, must guess its character, for it is bought 



496 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

of the scamps who, shut out from all honest employment, exist by prac- 
ticing upon the ignorant, or by pandering to the selfishness of the reckless 
portion of society. 

The fellows purchase faulty leather. This, when made up, necessarily 
has the under surface concealed ; it then requires a sharp and an edu- 
cated eye to detect the nature of the fixed and highly polished material. 
The men, however, are fully aware that, with most gentlemen, stoutness 
is the test of quality. The prejudices of the general public are therefore 
propitiated, only the well-known shops being solicited by the pecuHar 
order of workmen now under consideration. It is a common trick with 
the fraternity, before using, to line the flimsy stuff which they employ. 
This artifice is practiced as a bait to catch the notorious weakness of 
those persons in whose parsimony they find their most profitable cus- 
tomers. 

Stoutness, however, may frequently deceive, even where excellence is 
really present. A good piece of leather is not always characterized by 
its bulk. The article which possesses the greatest strength may be thin, 
but it will feel supple and mellow to the hand. A skin of such a nature 
may confidently be trusted to wear. Persons, however, who are not 
educated to understand these qualities, would do well to avoid the showy 
harness which, in leading thoroughfares, is stuck prominently forward, 
and is very low in price. This generally fails when stress is put upon it. 
A fair proportion of all accidents repoi'ted spring from that cause, a com- 
mon form of which is snapping of the reins when these are subjected to 
more than ordinary tension. Such things are either cut from unsound 
leather, or made of imperfectly manufactured material, or the furniture 
of the harness is designedly deficient in some most essential quality. 

By the furniture of harness is strictly implied that portion which is of 
metal, and which is always added to the leather before the fabric is com- 
pleted. The best metallic ornaments are a London product, and are 
always forged or cast, but never stamped. The best quality of iron 
alone should be used for such a purpose. Recently a very superior 
article has been adopted by the trade. This is made of the metallic 
combination known as German silver. That substance was, when first 
brought under public notice, far too brittle to be employed by the har- 
ness-maker; but late improvements have endowed it with a strength 
and a tenacity equal to that exhibited by the very best Swedish iron. 

After the furniture has been shaped, it has to be plated. It is as a 
plated article that German silver is most valuable. The butler's pantry 
is characterized by greater delicacy than commonly distinguishes the 
stable, though, in both places, goods the same in kind may have to be 
operated upon. When the thin coating of silver is removed, of course 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 497 

the substance upon which it is overlaid must be exposed. The duration 
of a modern ornament cannot be accurately stated ; but when the chief 
body was of iron, the contrast presented by the coarser metal and the 
silvered surface rendered repeated renewals unavoidable : whereas the 
integrity of th^ superficial layer is not so important when the bulk, both 
in color and in aspect, is a fair imitation of the more precious invest- 
ment. For this reason, Messrs. Gibson always recommend the use of 
plated German silver, which, if a trifle dearer to the purchaser, proves 
in the end the most economical, besides being a superior article from the 
commencement. 

Buckles are of much use, as these allow the harness to be adjusted; 
but no buckles can adjust that which is not properly made. The tight- 
ening or loosening of a strap may improve the set ; but a suit of well- 
constructed harness should be so accurately proportioned as to fall into 
its proper place without the aid of manual strength or the repeated 
alteration of the various fastenings. When harness does not fit, the 
collar either pains the shoulders or the saddle galls the back. An animal 
cannot progress steadily when its attention is engrossed by bodily suf- 
fering. The sight is no longer employed to guide the steps. The foot 
is incautiously placed upon a stone; the steed stumbles over the first in- 
equality ; or, the mind being excited by pain, any object may alarm or 
startle the quadruped. The animal is blamed, and has been destroyed 
because of such accidents; whereas the real cause of the mischief was 
a badly-made set of cheap harness, which was probably worn for the 
first occasion, and which the owner may have journeyed forth specially 
to display. 

Such mishaps should caution the public always to have the trappings 
of a horse made for the quadruped ; or, at all events, altered by a proper 
tradesman, before allowing them to be employed. The difference of cost 
between the ready-made article and the goods which are manufactured 
to order is not more than a third of the outlay; while the products of 
any respectable house will, upon an average, last twice as long as, and 
need infinitely less repairing than, the rubbish which is sold "cheap." 
Therefore, by true economy, by durability, and by safety, the public 
should be urged to a particular selection. 

The gentleman, however, who contemplates "starting his horse," must 
not conceive the expenditure has terminated with the purchase of the 
animal. There are stables to rent and a groom to hire. Then there is 
the building to provide and to furnish ; a saddle and a bridle to procure ; 
with a set of harness and a vehicle to obtain. Rent and servant neces- 
sitate no immediate outlay. Hay, oats, and straw may possibly be ac- 
quired upon short credit; but stable furniture, saddlery, harness, and 

82 



498 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



vehicle should be paid for on delivery; otherwise more than a fair per- 
centage for time and for money may be added to the account. 

The articles requisite to furnish a stable are rather numerous ; cer- 
tainly they are somewhat expensive. Because of that circumstance, 
everything should be purchased of the stoutest kind and of the best 
quality. On no account should the servant receive extra wages to 
supply such necessaries. The man, when making such an agreement, 
of course contemplates a profit, and, as he concludes the bargain, calcu- 
lates how few accessories he can contrive "to get along with." The 
smaller the number the greater must be the pecuniary gain. The horse 
is, therefore, inconvenienced, if not tortured, by certain processes being 
accomplished with inefficient instruments, the grooming being performed 
rather to please the master's eye than to conduce to the comfort of his 
animal. 

The consequences of such an arrangement are, the gentleman is 
cheated, the horse is maltreated ; while the only gainer by the transac- 
tion, should he be suddenly discharged, of course carries away the many 
et ceteras he has been paid to provide. The stable is in a great measure 
stripped of its furniture. The new-comer may not enter upon his situation 
immediately. A helper, who must in the interim be engaged, will not 
feel disposed to adopt any artifice for the convenience of his employer. 




FTJIiY CUJinEB. 



Moreover, the new servant may agree to certain conditions, without 
comprehending the outlay these involved. Grooms, when they enter 
upon a fresh situation, seldom possess cash in any abundance j therefore, 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



499 



several expedients are imperative, each of which implies the imperfect 
performance of some necessary duty. 

Supposing one horse only to be kept, stable furniture embraces — 
clothing. Of this, the first cost of the blanket kind certainly is the 
lowest; but the sort denominated "kersey" last much the longer period, 
and therefore must, in the end, prove by far the least expensive. The ani- 
mal's clothes consist of several pieces, each being known by a distinct 
name : as, quarter-sheet ; breast-piece ; hunting-piece ; pad-cloth ; hood ; 
body-roller, and knee-caps. 

To these are added a moderate sized and coarse blanket or horse rug 
fcff the night, as well as a night roller to fasten it upon the body. 




NIGHT CLOTHINQ. 



Among the stable furniture, which is more directly employed about 
the horse, ranks the head collar, the manger log, and the manger rein 
or the rope rein. Of which last, the leathern fastening is not much the 
dearer; while in appearance, in utility, and in wear, it will be found 
altogether the superior. 

Of articles required by the groom for use, are the scraper; the hoof 
picker; the curry-comb; the dandy, or dandruff brushes and water 
brushes ; combs ; straight and crooked scissors for trimming the mane 
and tail ; sponges ; bandages for the legs ; cloths ; leathers ; a rack chain ; 
the pillar reins; the exercising bridle; hard and soft brushes for clean- 



500 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



ing harness ; a burnisher ; a brush to clean the bit ; an oil pan and a 
brush; a dung basket; pails and forks. All these articles, that they 
may survive the usual treatment of such things, should be supplied by 
some reputable tradesman. 




SOME OP THE ARTICLES BEQIHSITE FOR THE QROOJl'S VSS. 



The above goods, being designed to endure hard wear, should each 
be of the best possible quality. More order than is commonly observed 
ought to be maintained in the arrangement of the stable. A place 
should be allotted for every article when not in use. That this may be 
accomplished, stables should be built with better accommodations for 
storing than it is customary to provide in such erections. Bottles, jars, 
and implements are now thrust into any ready corner ; the interiors of 
these places consequently present a littered appearance; but such an 
aspect is unavoidable, when there exists no receptacle where such arti- 
cles might be placed until again required. There is now no help for the 
nuisance : forks, brooms, pails, and boxes must incumber the gangway, 
since the architect never provides a situation where such properties 
might be more safely lodged. 

Another essential should be attended to by every gentleman who 
values the condition of his horse, the comfort of his stable, or the pres- 
ervation of those accessories with which the last-named place must be 
stocked — this is, the temper of the servant. Some people favor a 
strange prejudice, which asserts irritability and industry are frequently 
associated. Anger, however, does not open the heart to sympathy, 
and its habitual display assuredly unfits its victim for the exercise of 
authority. 

Evil passion will render a servant disobliging, and cause him to be- 
come an expensive retainer. The manner in which the failing will act 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 501 

upon the groom may not be very apparent to the reader, therefore his 
indulgence is requested while the author proceeds briefly to explain the 
matter. 

Nothing can possibly be more extravagant than passion. It is heed- 
less of consequences, and destruction is its delight. The author formerly 
knew a gentleman who used to indulge in the most violent fits of un- 
bridled temper. He made his home miserable, and a moderate income 
was sadly crippled by expenses resulting from gusts of constitutional 
irritability. The last consequence, it is melancholy to relate, alone in- 
duced thoughts of amendment. When this individual, in later life, became 
conscious that what he termed his cloudy mood threatened to darken 
his intellect, he would retire to some solitary apartment : there, he would 
station himself before a looking-glass, and begin simpering and blandly 
talking to his own image. He would then tear or break something, 
generally a wooden or a paper match, and, having thus gratified that 
which he named his destructive impulse, after a few more antics would 
return, all smiles, to the bosom of his family, exclaiming, "Thank 
Heaven 1 It's all over now !" 

But the great majority of grooms, imbued with the pride of ignorance, 
cannot afford to acknowledge a failing. Conceit makes them rather lend 
strength to an affliction by striving to conceal its existence. The master 
may never discover, if he cares not to search for, the truth. But the 
servant is necessarily empowered with absolute control in the stable. 
The implements speedily are damaged ; certain duties are either neg- 
lected or imperfectly performed; the horse loses its fat; the coat never 
looks well; the eye becomes restless from the natural timidity of the 
animal being perpetually awakened. Nothing promotes thrift in a quad- 
ruped like the placidity of its attendant; whereas the constant alarm 
excited by the habitual anger of its superior is inimical to that glossy 
outside and blooming aspect in which the larger number of horse owners 
so much delight. 

The groom, in most situations, is greatly trusted with valuable prop- 
erty. In a large stable the cost of the trappings alone would form no 
inconsiderable possession to a needy man. There must be either sad- 
dlery or harness. There is no one to overlook the treatment of either. 
Such articles are expensive, and each is composed of numerous compli- 
cations. Harness for one horse consists of a bridle, of a collar, of a pad, 
of a martingale, of reins, of traces, of a breeching or of a loin strap, of a 
crupper, etc.; all of which should be solidly and well constructed. The 
svhole should be formed of the very best leather, for any defect in this 
furniture may be fruitful with the greatest danger. Hence the advantage 
of dealing with a maker whose warranty represents more than a wordy 



502 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

inducement to purchase ; and hence the necessity for care in the servant 
to whom such perishable property is intrusted. 




OIG HARNESS WITH KICKINQ-STEAP. 



For the gig horse, a set of harness, if embellished with plated orna- 
ments, is generally charged about thirteen pounds. For a pair of car- 
riage animals, the harness possessing similar adornments will commonly 
cost nearly thirty-three pounds. If brass is preferred in the place of 
plated goods, a slight reduction is the result. Yet even the foregoing 
figures do not include crests and other fanciful items, which are invariably 
paid for as extras, since no estimate could possibly embrace articles con- 
cerning the size, the number, and the elaboration of which the tastes of 
scarcely two individuals perfectly agree. 

The harness for a brougham is generally more expensive than that 
sold for the gig. Extra strength is required, and where work and leather 
are concerned, of course strength represents money. The trappings also 
should be more showy and more embellished when intended for a serv- 
ant's use. Most gentlemen prefer the animal they control should be so 
caparisoned as to attract no attention. This feeling causes the differ- 
ence in price. Ornamentation, where the horses are to be^dorned, of 
course necessitates expenditure, though the degree in which the last 
quality shall be exhibited necessarily depends on the taste of the pro- 
prietor. 

Carriage harness, however, is viewed as the perfection of its particular 
craft. It is astonishing how nice is the adjustment required, and how 
perceptible any fault or deficiency becomes to the least observant spec- 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 503 

tator. The carriage may be new, the liveries of the smartest kind, but 
unless the harness be excellent, the general effect will be deteriorated. 
The pace of the horses is rendered uneven, the coachman becomes nerv- 
ous, and the vehicle is not drawn smoothly onward when any sensible 
defect exists. Gentlemen cannot imagine how much danger is hazarded 
by the endeavors often made to procure an expensive article at less than 
a fairly remunerative price. 




FULL SDII OF BBOUQBAM OB FHAIION HARNESS. 



Harness is thus expensive because its uses demand excellence in every 
part. It is subject to daily trials ; it must be manufactured to sustain 
perpetual tests as well as to endure constant supervision. A good set 
of harness should wear eight or ten years, although during the length- 
ened service repeated repairs must be expected. The mendings, or per- 
haps the partial renewals, will of course grow heavier as the age of the 
material increases. If done by piece-work, the repairs will average from 
one pound to four pounds yearly ; but if a contract be entered into with 
the maker, the terms usually are from thirty shillings to two pounds per 
annum ; the agreement dating from the commencement of the wear. 

The endurance of such things, however, is greatly governed by the 
uses to which they are subjected, and by the manner in which they are 
treated. When harness is seldom at home, of course it wears faster than 
when it is rarely or is moderately employed. The industry and habits 
of the person who looks after the articles have also to be considered. 
Some lazy men will ruthlessly wash the leather in a pail of water and 
afterward hang it upon the most convenient paling to dry in the sun- 
shine. Such a proceeding will prove quickly ruinous : harshness is in- 



5)4 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



duced ; all suppleness is destroyed ; a disposition to crack is engendered ; 
while the plated ornaments speedily become tarnished. 

The proper method of cleaning is, to employ as little water as possible. 
A moist sponge, well soaped, may, when very much soil exists, be 
quickly passed over the surface, but each part should, without loss of 
time, be immediately dried after the dirt is removed. All the mud 
having been thus obliterated, the several pieces should be most carefully 
gone over again with a dry cloth, so as to absorb any possible moisture 
which, during the first cleansing, may have escaped notice. In fine or 
during dusty weather, no fluid is necessary, nor should the employment 
of any be suffered. A pail of water will, doubtlessly, save labor ; but 
the servant's leisure, which is thereby secured, is a severe burden upon 
the master's income. A good brush, not too hard, but one having 
springy hair, will soon remove all dry impurities ; and with that the 
harness, when not made moist by the road or rendered wet by exuda- 
tion from the animal's body, should always be cleansed. 



.%. 



^^^ . 



^Ui 




A FULL sen OF CARRIAGE HARNESS. 



This being done, apply Harris's jet-black oil, but not thickly ; enough 
has been laid on so that the application lies upon every portion of the 
surface. No long time need be allowed for the oil to dry in ; but the 
first piece is generally ready to receive the next application by the time 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



505 



the last part has been properly finished. Then apply a little of the 
compo. , which being polished to a lustrous black, the entire process is 
perfected by a final wash of Harris's harness fluid. 

The appearance will be longer preserved when harness is cleaned aftei 
the foregoing directions, while its lasting properties are not injured by 
the process. Instead of being deteriorated every time it is cleansed, the 
leather is nourished, its strength and its aspect being renovated. The 
plated ornaments, of course, are not alluded to in the above instructions ; 
to polish these, some prepared chalk, fine brushes, finer than are generally 
employed, and a wash leather are imperative. 

An inefficient groom is, perhaps, more readily detected by his manner 
of cleaning harness than by any other stable operation. Practice alone 
confers aptitude in handling the various pieces. Use enables the dif- 
ferent articles to be rendered smart without staining the flesh or soiling 
the dress of the operator. When the servant is new to the occupation, 
particular portions are invariably scamped ; others get more than the 
requisite attention. Certain of the ornaments are left with the crevices 
full of powder, while some parts are wholly neglected ; but, above all, 
the linings to the various pieces are always smeared and impressed with 
dirty finger-marks. A good groom apparently will not trouble himself 
to avoid such errors, but, when he has finished, each portion is equally 
clean, while the insides are untainted and free from the smallest soil. 

The linings should be cleansed in the same manner as the other parts, 
only the blacking and the polishing are unnecessary. In most situations, 
leather is employed to cover the under surface ; where this substance is 
present, no beating is then required. Where cloth is used, as in the 
lining of a saddle pannel, this should be daily beaten with a small cane, 
and subsequently brushed till all hairs and dust are removed. The bad 
servant invariably strives to hide his laziness under a pretense of exces- 
sive zeal for his master's interest. When ordered to attend to the lining 
of his harness, he will endeavor to escape from the command by pleading 
the wear which attends the constant friction occasioned by continual 
beating and by perpetual brushing. 

A collar placed on the horse should be firm, falling easily into its 
proper situation. It is stuffed with straw or flock, and is lined with 
leather. That the lining may not be stretched and that the stuffing may 
not be hardened in parts but may feel equally firm upon every portion of 
its inner surface, the article should never be used when moist, even in the 
remotest degree. When removed in a wet state, it should be dried 
either in the sun or before the kitchen fire, prior to again being taken 
into service. When doing this, of course the nature of the material 
should be considered ; it should only be exposed to such a heat as will 



506 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



cause the moisture to evaporate, and if that end can be attained by a 
brisk current of air in a shady place, such a situation is to be very much 
preferred to any natural or to any artificial warmth. 

The collar should pass into its situation without requiring the force 
which careless grooms seem to delight in exerting, or ignorant servants, 
possibly,* may regard as necessary to the proper fulfillment of their 
duties. Any violence, when daily repeated, must eventually damage 
the horse's appearance by removing hair from the prominences of the 
head, and by causing the naturally placid countenance of the animal to 
assume a worn or a ragged expression. The collar should be turned 
when put over the face, the widest part of the opening being passed 
over the ears. When the head is through, and before the article pro- 
ceeds lower than the topmost portion of the neck, it should be righted, 
or the pointed part should occupy the most elevated situation; after 
which it is slid down upon the shoulder. 

The collar, when fitted to the neck, should sit firmly and closely. The 
bearing should be equal and even, because the entire draught is from 
the collar ; in proportion as the bearing is accurately distributed, so the 
weight will be easily propelled. Some people have endeavored to 
render the collar more steady by attaching the traces to hames with 
double eyes. The hames are the metal rods which repose upon the 





HAMES WITH DOUBLE ETES. 



A SCROLL-EYED HAME. 



collar ; the eyes are circular spaces which permit the traces to be united 
to the hames. Though double fastenings may occasion the force to seem 
better distributed along these rods, the effect must operate rather upon 
the spectator's mind than upon the substance it is meant to render 
stationary. If a line is drawn from the point where the trace should 
end, and equidistant from those places to which the two bands are 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



501 



attached, the real seat of bearing will prove not to have been changed 
by the angularity of the fastenings, but will either remain confined to its 
original situation, or it may act only on one fastening to the exclusion of 
the other. That which is known as a scroll eye, however, is more 
elegant than the plain attachment, and on account of its smartness 
deserves to be preferred. *' 

A breast-collar, when the circumstances permit a free exercise of 
selection, should never be adopted. It may, in the eye of inexperience, 
look prettier; but it goes directly across a part of motion; it drags 
against the muscles, which, being loose in structure, are not made to 
endure continual pressure. Moreover, the cartilage of the chest moves 
with each respiration ; any force operating from without, therefore, can- 
not but oppose this normal action. 
Besides, the chief component of the 
chest, the terminations of the ribs, 
which are inserted into the sternum, 
are also cartilaginous. Now, carti- 
lage is highly plastic, and readily as- 
sumes strange shapes, as is seen by 
the larynx when distorted by the 
bearing-rein. (See "Illustrated Horse 
Doctor," pp. 108, 109.) Whereas, 
when the collar bears against the shoulder, it is supported by solid bone, 
as firm and as compact as can be found in most structures throughout the 
body. 

However, when accident or disease makes it impossible to continue 
the employment of a collar, the breast-strap, although in itself an evil, 
becomes the only substitute. 




A BREAST-COLLAR OR STRAP 





A UOYABLE AND A FIXED KINO FOE THE EEIN8 TO PASS THROUGH. 



There is connected with the hame a simple arrangement, about which 
neither gentlemen nor makers are always sufiiciently particular. The 



50S 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



reins are supported in their proper position by passing through a ring or 
ferret, which is generally fixed upon the hames. Should the horse, thus 
caparisoned, accidentallj fall, the loop, being immovable, is either bent 
out of all shape, or, more probably, it is broken short off by the weight 
of the prostrate animal. It may be replied, that horse collars are not, 
when nf^nufactured, made to be violently driven against stones. The 
writer does not contradict the assertion ; but when a hinge will not in- 
terfere with the aspect, and, by yielding to pressure, will guard against 
a possible mischance, the little extra labor which the addition would 
require assuredly could not be better expended. 




The principal portions of the harness having been considered, some 
thought must now be bestowed upon the chief essentials of saddlery. 
A good saddle, intended to please the majority of horsemen, should be 
seventeen and a half or eighteen inches long, the length being regulated 
by the shape of the animal. It is, of course, equally easy to manufac- 
ture a saddle of any given proportions ; but one of a sound working and 
a thoroughly useful sort should not be much shorter, and should weigh 
from ten to twelve pounds. Such things have been produced of seven 
pounds weight. Were it desirable, the saddle could be made much 
lighter even than the last figure represents ; the article at present under 
consideration is supposed to be of a lasting description, and not of the 
fanciful kind. When gentlemen lay down rules which the manufacturer 
is to observe, they should remember that the tradesman, who rherely 
carries out his employer's ideas, and is not permitted to obey his own 
convictions, is no longer responsible for results. 

A broad seat is generally preferred. This should not be so wide as 



SADDLERT AND HARNESS. 509 

to disable the grip of the rider; but it ought to be of no greater dimen- 
sions than will allow a firm hold to be taken bj the fleshy part of the 
thigh. Every saddle has two girths, but all girths have not three straps. 
These should always be present; because if one strap should break, 
another is ready to supply its place. It vexes most keen sportsmen, 
near the termination of a hard run, to lose a good place because,* trained 
by the accelerated action of the horse's lungs, a girth strap shall, when 
excitement is at its height, give way. 

To avoid so irritating an accident, the hunting or the Melton girth is 
now commonly employed. This consists of a broad webbing, which is 
tightened by two straps, one at either margin. Over the main girth 
there runs a narrower length of the same material, which is kept in its 
situation by passing through two loops upon the principal binder. The 
narrower webbing is fastened by means of the third or central strap. 
Thus, should one of the fastenings of the chief girth yield, or even should 
both be forced from their holds, the saddle will not necessarily be dis- 
placed, as there is always a supernumerary guard in attendance ready 
to officiate as the representative of its incapacitated principals. 




CRCPPEK, MELTON QIBTH, AITD MARTINGALE. 

Cruppers are generally discarded. These appendages have occasioned 
terrible sores, and are of no actual utility to the retention of the saddle ; 
for the withers should prevent that convenience from moving too for- 
ward. • A martingale is occasionally used ; but if the animal be rightly 
formed for its purposes, and has been carefully broken in, the head should 
be carried properly without necessitating compulsion. The mouth is 
soon injured and loses its sensitiveness when a tight rein is constantly 



510 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

in requisition to bring tlie muzzle into its proper situation. When the 
lips are subjected to perpetual pressure it can hardly be anticipated that 
the steed can obey the slightest movement of the rider's hand. Most 
people are vexed when obliged to tug and haul every time it is desired 
the animal should deviate from the direct course. 

Once the spring stirrup was hailed as a marvelous invention and an 
indispensable part of every good saddle. This was designed to release 
the foot of a rider who had lost his seat. Such things were very pretty 
toys. They acted beautifully in the chamber when first taken out of 
paper, but, when exposed to use, these elegant precautions soon got out 
of order. Dirt would work into the joint and would interfere with the 
mechanism, which thus became useless at the very time its services were 
likely to be required. After a hard gallop the joint could not be other- 
wise than clogged, especially when the run was across country. There- 
fore the spring stirrup has been displaced in public estimation by the 
spring bar. This last is the newer and the less costly provision, the 
spring being attached to the bar which supports the stirrup leather. 



liiSt 


it 




\f^ ■:ulJIri 


ilV 


11,11 liffiii 


aitr« 




SPEING BAR FOE THE STIBRTJP LEATHEE AND SPRING STIRRUP. BOTH BEING EXHIBITED DURING BEST 
AND WHEN IN ACTION. 

The situation where the machinery is lodged protects it from dirt, from 
wet, or from dust, being doubly sheltered from all such intrusion. It is 
covered by the skirt of the saddle, and is likewise shielded by the thigh 
of the rider. The article thus placed is removed from the operation of 
that objection which has thrown the spring stirrup into disuse. The 
purpose of both inventions is equal, being exactly similar. When the 
rider was unseated, the stirrup was intended to yield before the drag of 
the imprisoned foot. When the horseman is throvtoi, the smallest trac- 
tion does occasion the spring bar to act, and the leather is released, the 
limb forcing the stirrup iron and the leather to quit their relative situa- 
tions. 

The stirrup iron was formerly made of various shapes, each of which 
was imagined to possess some special advantage. At present, however, 
the public appear to disregard peculiarities of form in such articles, and 
to pay no attention to those contortions concerning which our forefathers 
were so extremely precise. It is now considered quite sufficient if the 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



511 



stirrup iron afford a firm rest to the foot of the rider, if it be not disposed 
to glide away from the pressure of the boot, and if it be as light as pos- 
sible, but nevertheless possesses the strength necessary for its purposes. 
All these intentions are embodied in a plain, three-barred stirrup iron, 
which presents an ample surface of bearing, while, being slightly rough- 
ened upon its upper surface, it is readily retained by pressure ; but for 
the strength of the article the respectability of the salesman must afford 
the only possible guarantee. 

Also appended to the saddle is an adjunct frequently of no inconsid- 
erable utility in the field. It is comparatively of modern invention, and 
is known as the hunting breast-plate. One extremity is attached by 
means of a hold to each side of the saddle, near to the pommel. The 
straps proceeding thence are short, and soon unite, when the medium of 
junction proceeds to the chest. The two leathers, one from either side, 
are there joined to a single strap, which, after passing between the fore- 
legs, is finally attached to the girth. The intention of this addition is 
to retain the saddle in its proper situation, an object not always easy to 
accomplish even with this provision, as high withers and violent mus- 
cular exertion naturally incline to its backward movement. 




& BUNTma BREAST-PLATE. 



The breast-plate, for the full development of its use, necessitates much 
care in the groom when caparisoning the quadruped. The two short 
upper straps, on which all stress must center, join directly under the 
windpipe. Because of this all parts necessitate the most accurate adjust- 
ment ; where a breast-plate is used, the servant should particularly notice 



512 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

the position of the girth when securing the fastening. If the leather 
should be loose or even slack, the backward motion of the saddle will 
of course dispose the two side pieces to assume the straight line, or it 
will force their junction upward as well as render its pressure more strin- 
gent. The consequence will be, the strap must press upon the trachea 
and blood-vessels ; the animal may be choked, and the hunting of one 
day spoiled, even should the rider and his horse ultimately escape all 
injury. 

The upper reins of the martingale are sometimes made to spring from 
the center fastening of the breast-plate. But the use of the martingale 
is to force the head downward. To do this requires a firm hand and 
a straight rein, which consequently pulls the restraining strap of the 
breast-plate upward, and thus destroys the purpose of the last invention. 
The two articles are, in their uses, perfectly distinct ; such things cannot 
be profitably blended. The martingale is designed to counteract an 
upward traction. The fastening of the breast-plate should drag only in 
the downward line, whereas the head strains in the contrary direction. 
When a martingale cannot be dispensed with, one should be worn totally 
distinct and separate from the breast -plate. It is, however, always 
desirable to join the meet with as few floating gear as possible ; since, 
when the pace grows hot and the fences are high, such loops are little 
better than baits for accident. 

A good addition to the saddle, and one no rider should be without, 
was introduced into this country by Messrs. Gibson. It was originally 

used in India, where its utility was 
largely tested, and amply proved by the 
British cavalry. This improvement con- 
sists of a felt under-pannel ; which is 
made of such dimensions as to be per- 
fectly concealed when lying between the 
FELT UNDEE-PANNEL. pauucl aud thc skin. As an adjusting 

medium it answers admirably. Should 
the saddle not exactly fit, the motion chafes the felt, and does not gall 
the body. Besides, horses are not, more than their masters, of the same 
size at all times; the felt, being elastic, allows of slight variations in 
bulk without imperiling the safety of the proprietor. 

The felt under-pannel should always be used whenever a side-saddle 
is employed; it renders the adjustment more easy, and makes it more 
secure. Such an advantage cannot always be attained, even with the 
extra girth, with which all side-saddles should be provided. Every 
possible care ought to be exercised that the seat of a lady's saddle may 
be rendered firm ; because, as the make throws the bearing upon the 




SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



513 



near side, and the fixedness of the position must incapacitate the lady 
for freedom of action, therefore any movement of the saddle is likely to 
be attended by serious consequences. 




A lady's stikrup with the knee crutch and the victoria stirecf. 



For the foregoing reasons, the maker should bestow the greatest atten- 
tion upon the shape of the saddle-tree ; no artifice should be neglected 
that is calculated to render the side-saddle more fixed upon the horse's 
back. The seat should be longer as well as broader than is usual in 
those articles which are manufactured to sell quickly and to look pret- 
tily. It should be covered with soft, unpolished leather, and be quilted, 
so that its partial roughness and trivial inequalities may present a more 
secure and an easier seat for the fair equestrian. 

Every aid would, however, be useless, were it not for the crutches. 
The female rider must cast her bearing upon the near crutch; hence 
horses, when forced to work under an ill-made side-saddle, often suffer 
terribly, and exhibit as the consequence severe examples of fistulous 
withers. Experience has proved that the off" crutch is of small service, 
save as it may confirm the confidence of the lady; although, by render- 
ing the leg more stationary, it is in reality calculated to increase her 
danger. Its utility lies in calming the timidity of the horsewoman ; for 
the instant a horse gets into motion, the bearing is entirely toward the 
near side ; therefore most modern saddlers, although they dare not re- 
move the useless crutch, have its height materially diminished. 

The third or knee crutch is a comparatively recent improvement. It 

33 



614 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

offers a point for pressure to the left knee, or of bearing for the stirrup 
leg. It is of every service, enabling the lady to retain a firm seat. 
During the perils of leaping it prevents the lighter weight of the female 
body being, by the violence of the motion, so shaken as to lose all hold 
upon the upper crutches. Thus, in some degree, it compensates for the 
advantage that gentlemen enjoy in the grip which their position enables 
them to take of the saddle. 





THE ladies' patent stirrup, exhibited at best and in action. 

The slipper was the favorite stirrup in use with the side-saddle a few 
years ago. Its adoption then was all but universal, and so at the pres- 
ent time is its rejection. The Victoria stirrup, or an iron of the shape 
which is adopted by Her Majesty, now engrosses public patronage ; it 
being generally employed, with the addition of the previously noticed 
spring bar. 

The patent stirrup for ladies is not liable to those objections which 
were urged against the spring stirrup, when employed for the saddles of 
gentlemen. The habit protects the machinery, which is not therefore 
exposed to the intrusion of mud. Its action is almost certain ; but, 
should it not answer the occasion, the next invention, when employed 
with the foregoing provision, would probably set the malice of "luck" 
at defiance. 

The following should also be appended to every lady's saddle. Male 
equestrians may esteem the spring bar to afford the gentle sex sufficient 
protection. However, where there is a possibility of question, no ex- 
pense ought to prevent the more fearful rider from being guarded by the 
latest additions, which may promise even the remotest chance of security. 
The common spring bar rarely fails to act ; but, on particular occasions, 
it has retained the stirrup leather. The patented improvement shown 
on the next page appears to provide against such an accident, and when 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 515 

employed with the stirrup represented in the previous engraving, it as- 
suredly affords an almost certain immunity from those accidents which 
each is assumed to render an impossibility. 




PATENT SAFETY ePEIXG FSESSCSE STIRRUP BAR. DEPICTED AT REST ANT) IK ACHOlf. 

The dotted lines indicate the relative positiona of the Btiimp leather. 

No lady's saddle should be used without being accompanied by the 
hunting breast-plate ; for nothing which might possibly increase security 
should in that case be neglected. For the last reason, also, a felt under- 
pannel should never be absent ; because firmness of seat lends assurance 
to the rider, and because the provision prevents that unsteadiness 
which is known to provoke one of the worst evils to which the horse is 
exposed. 

Saddles are covered by what the public denominate pigs' skins, but 
which the trade, aiming at a distinction without being able to indicate a 
difference, persist in calling hogs' skins. 

These are always procured from the currier in large lots when pur- 
chased at first hand ; but they are a hazardous article to buy. Out of 
two hundred, of which a parcel shall consist, there may not be more than 
two dozen really sound skins ; therefore no tradesman has hitherto been 
able to establish a reputation for dealing in so uncertain a commodity. 
The wholesale merchant, consequently, knows but few customers Estab- 
lished houses alone can afford the requisite outlay to obtain goods of so 
notoriously uncertain a character. From the larger parcels the best 
specimens are carefully selected by the first buyer; the remainder are 
cast upon the retail market, and are distributed among the numerous 
class of trades-people, whose limited capital does not allow them to 
speculate with the articles which they employ. 

A good saddle is recognized by the accuracy of the fit. When let fall 
upon the back, it at once finds the proper situation. There it remains 
stationary and firm before a girth is fastened. When the maker, having 
brought home a new article, finds occasion to interfere with the groom. 



616 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

shifts about the saddle, and concludes his performance by tugging at the 
girths before he requests the employer to feel how firmly the new pro- 
duction is located, it is always an evil omen. The saddler, supposing 
the groom to be competent to his position, should never be suffered to 
volunteer assistance ; the horse owner had better ride bare-backed than 
be seated on a badly-constructed saddle, for the last is hardly less un- 
pleasant to a good horseman, while the first is infinitely more safe for 
the rider and the quadruped. 

A good fit presupposes excellent workmen, and of course the larger 
houses attract the greater number of such artificers, because in such 
shops men expect to be employed on that particular branch of work in 
which each excels. Such masters, likewise, can afford to pay the highest 
rate of wages, and can alone tempt with constant employment. Add to 
these reasons that money in the saddlery and harness trades commands 
rather more than its just influence, being able to select the pick of every 
market, and it must be apparent how many advantages the established 
firm enjoys over the ordinary beginner, who has to struggle against the 
lack of pecuniary ability, against a want of regular customers, and against 
those difficulties which are peculiar to his calling. 

Hogs' skins are easily cleansed by washing quickly with a little soap 
and water ; but washing and drenching are not here regarded as repre- 
senting the same process. Water is not beneficial to leather of any sort, 
therefore as little fluid as will accomplish the object should be used ; the 
more speedy the operation the better. ' It should be concluded by a clean 
cloth immediately wiping the surface quite dry. This finished, a sponge 
damped with good milk should be passed over the exterior; the saddle 
then should be hung up (not before the fire or in the sunshine) to expel 
the moisture. The more seldom, however, this process is adopted the 
better ; consequently, it is only to be recommended upon urgent necessity. 

Bridles, and every strip of harness which bears the slightest resem- 
blance to a rein, should be cut only from the best, the strongest, and the 
choicest of English leather. Struggling tradesmen do not all possess 
the ability, however powerful may be the desire, to exercise selection in 
this article. Some have sent forth reins made of so faulty a material as 
stood exposed the moment it encountered the glance of a practical or an 
educated eye. The head-piece, requiring shorter straps, may possibly 
be cut from a partially imperfect hide ; but for the reins, length and tough- 
ness are essential. The merest crack will, with constant wear, become 
a fissure ; and no horseman can foretell the moment when personal safety 
shall depend upon the power which he shall be able to exert through 
the reins. 

A fair proportion of the injuries which happen to riders or to drivers 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. SI'? 

are aggravated by faulty reins. A contest arises between a restive horse 
and an intemperate master. The contest, which from the earliest period 
alarmed timidity in the animal, has just excited the man, when the reins 
fly asunder. The scared quadruped finds itself suddenly released. The 
creature understands nothing of the cause ; but the first impulse natural 
to fear is to fly fi'om the presence of the power against which it has been 
struggling. Whenever the horse displeases its master, pain inflicted by 
whip, bit, or spur generally ensues as a natural consequence. It is from 
such torture that the poor life endeavors to escape. Motion increases its 
terror as the unshackled being dashes blindly onward. An accident is 
the probable result. The coroner and the jury assemble ; a verdict, which 
all approve, is formally delivered ; but no one thinks of inspecting the 
reins to discover the real cause of injury. 

Reins should always be attentively examined. If good, they look 
pleasant to the eye, and are yielding to the touch. Any roughness, 
harshness, .or hardness denotes the presence of defective leather. It 
may not break to-morrow or the next day, but before long the rein will 
separate. The slightest indication of a crack will gradually become an 
extensive division. Messrs. Gibson have often been honored with com- 
mands to export reins, the foreign leather being harsh and inelastic, 
therefore feeling unpleasant to English hands ; but more frequently the 
natives of this country are afraid to employ reins exhibiting innumerable 
cracks, everywhere displaying the roughness which should not exist, 
and being totally deficient in the suppleness which ought to be abund- 
antly present. 

When reins are intended for the use of ladies, their character should 
be unexceptionable. Many girls, before they have conquered the seat, 
depend, in no slight degree, upon the reins 
for retaining their positions in the saddle. 
They of course understand nothing about 
saddlery. They accept anything which is 
offered ; but the sudden snapping of the reins 
always terrifies the steed, while it greatly 
alarms the gentle being on its back, whose 
fears are increased by finding herself instan- 
taneously deprived of a support on which 
her inexperience had depended. Ladies' 
reins, being made lighter, should be cut from 
tetter leather than those intended for gen- a^y's bridle. 

tlemen ; if there be a possible choice, it should 

be accorded to the weaker party. Some horsewomen like the rains and 
the head-piece to be formed of rounded straps. Thus made, they cer- 




518 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

tainly have a lighter and a more graceful appearance ; but Messrs. Gib- 
son do not recommend such a form of bridle to those ladies who delight 
in mounting and in subduing high-spirited animals. 

Martingales are generally complained of as troublesome appendages 
when added to the trappings of either the saddle or of the gig horse. 
These articles, however, can be so manufactured as to lend a dignity to 
the quadrupeds which run before carriages ; though, where a martingale 
is used, the bearing-rein becomes unnecessaiy, since both restraints aim 
at the same object. Perhaps of the two, the martingale is the better, 
because, while obliging the head to be held in the proper position, it 
enables the coachman, by slackening the reins, to rest the muscles of the 
neck when the vehicle pauses. The martingale certainly requires the 
better driver, and imposes the greater exertion upon him who drives, 
the latter circumstance being likely to interfere with the digestive 
serenity of most servants. 

There is, however, one species of martingale, without which few ladies' 
saddles appear to be fully equipped. Some 
animals necessitate no restraint to improve 
the carriage of the head, but these, neverthe- 
less, acquire a habit of throwing the muzzle 
suddenly up and of jerking the foam from 
the lips into the face of the rider. This pro- 
pensity communicates no pleasure to the 
person who occupies the seat. It generally 
causes the equestrian to lower the head 
whenever the quadruped evinces a disposi- 
A FRENCH MARTINGALE. tlou to cxalt Its countenanco ; such being the 

precise moment when the human vision is of 
double value ; for the eye of the horse, being direct heavenward, can then 
take no cognizance of earthly objects; hence the great need for the 
guidance of the rider. 

To correct this, the French martingale, which consists of a single 
strap, is attached to the nose band. The band passes over the nasal 
bones, and under the forward part of the lower jaw. To the lowest part 
of this band the French martingale is fixed. The operation is obvious. 
The horse, by raising the head, causes the martingale to act on the bridle : 
the nostrils are compressed; the breathing is interfered with; and, as 
thp quadruped resents the slightest hinderance to its respiration, the 
fruitless effort to indulge an obnoxious habit is relinquished, so that the 
annoyance of the tightened nose band may be avoided. French martin- 
gales, which were once largely in use, are now never employed with a 




SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



519 



gentleman's saddle, although they have not been discarded by eques- 
trians of the gentler sex. 





BITS CSUAIiT ATTACHED TO LADIES' BRIDLES. 



BUCKLED AND SEWN ON. 



The bits which accompany the ladies' bridle are more fanciful in 
shape, and more ornamental in appearance, though hardly so heavy as 
the articles manufactured for the use of gentle- 
men, because the generality of ladies seldom 
resort to this instrument of positive torture : 
indeed, these severities seem to be losing their 
attractions over the harsher natures. Many 
men, however, employ them ; most regard a 
bridle as incomplete without a bit; but very 
few are so fond of the restraint as to order it 
to be sewn to the head piece. 

A bit permanently attached certainly appears lighter, and necessitates 
the employment of less obvious force, though at the same time it must be 
more acute when in operation. Nevertheless, it is to be doubted whether 
one foot passenger out of ten thousand would notice the only peculiarity 
for which such an arrangement is to be commended. Moreover, every 
animal does not require the exertion of extraordinary power ; while the 
irremovable character of the bit is not without attendant disadvantages. 
The article can no longer be changed at pleasure. A rider may grow 
to dislike the constant employment of one form of coercion. The ani- 
mal's education may not need the perpetuation of such severity; the 
temper may improve, or the steed may accommodate itself to the per- 
sonal peculiarities of its proprietor; or the quadruped's mood may 
change, for horses, like their masters, are swayed by strange influences, 
and are sometimes impelled by eccentric impulses. 

When the metal has to be washed, cleaned, and polished, should the 
bit be sewn to the head piece, the leather cannot be removed during the 
processes. Water is not beneficial to a leathern material ; therefore the 
bit must either be imperfectly renovated, or the head piece must be 



620 SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 

soiled during the requisite labor demanded for the purification of its 
adjunct. These annoyances are avoided when the bit is made to take 
on and off by the means of a buckle. Each part can then be properly 
attended to without hazard to the rest. Should the bridle not appear 
clean, the owner recognizes a legitimate cause for complaint ; but when 
the bit is fixed, the groom has always ready an excuse for idleness, while 
the consequent wear will be found altogether more rapid. 

There are various kinds of bits, and each has its admirers ; but a well- 
broken and a good-tempered animal requires nothing more powerful than 
a snaffle. Restraints of needless severity, employed with extravagant 
exertion, are by no means required, though such are far too general with 
the great majority of professed horsemen. The animal is spoilt by such 
tuition. It is educated to understand nothing but coercion; whereas 
gentleness and firmness combined can accomplish much more than bru- 
tality can compel. 

There is a well-known tale, which, being illustrative of this subject, 
may here be aptly quoted. A farmer, intending to break a colt for sale, 
mounted the animal ; but hardly was he in the saddle before the ears 
were laid upon the neck, and the frame rendered rigid by the presence 
of obstinacy. The intention of the attitude was recognized by all ; but 
offers of stick, whip, or spur were as stubbornly rejected. " No, no, no," 
replied the kind-hearted proprietor to the proposal of such favorite per- 
suaders. "Jane, lass! bring I the afternoon's mug and pipe." These 
were discussed. Another pipe was filled and exhausted, without the 
honest fellow descending to earth. Then the colt was invited to pro- 
ceed ; but the humor of the quadruped continued unaltered ; accordingly 
it remained stationary, with the master on its back. 

"Father! tea is quite ready," cried Jane, peering from the kitchen 
window. "Bring it here, lass, for I shan't get down I" was the response. 
The tea was brought and partaken of. The day was drawing toward 
its close, and the air was becoming cold. "I should not mind having 
my great-coat, a pipe, and a glass," shouted the farmer. Everything 
was brought, and the man endeavored to make his position comfortable ; 
but apparently took no heed of the creature beneath him. "For," he 
observed, "if I could strike, the colt could fling and prance; so it might 
not be certain which would master ; whereas, while I be quiet, I've the 
best on't." 

Supper was eaten where the tea had been swallowed: the master 
showed he was resolved, unless the colt moved, to pass the night in the 
saddle. The animal became uneasy, and shifted about; but without 
progressing until some time after the clock had struck eleven. Then 
the colt was suddenly disposed to progress. " Whoy !" shouted its mas- 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



521 



ter, "jon have stayed so long to please yourself, now remain a little 
longer to pleasure 1 1" 

At length the rider was disposed to move, but in an opposite direc- 
tion to that which the colt was inclined to travel. The animal was also 
willing to trot briskly, but the farmer would sanction nothing faster than 
a walk. Accordingly, the pair slowly moved five miles out, and trotted 
five miles home. Then the quadruped was placed before an empty 
manger, and left, tired and hungry, to its night's meditations on the evils 
of disobedience. The above narrative, of course, concludes by stating 
that the animal proved docile "forever afterward." 

The obvious intention of the above is to discourage the employment 
of force. The strongest man cannot physically contend against the 
weakest horse. Man's power reposes in better attributes than any 
which reside in thews and muscles. Reason, alone, should dictate and 
control his conduct. Thus guided, mortals have subdued the elements. 
For power, when mental, is without limit : by savage violence nothing 
is attained, but the man is often humbled through a conviction of 
defeat. 





A PLAIN SNAFFLE. 



A rmSTED SNAFFLE. 




A CHAIN SNAFFLE. 



Every species of bit is evidence of a human mistake, and the wrench 
which it can exert is only the measure of the error. Many valuable 
animals are annually ruined, under a prejudiced notion about subduing 
a stubborn spirit. The horse is born submissive. It by nature acknqwl- 



522 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



edges the superiority of man. When the animal refuses to obey, the 
disobedience only expresses the creature's ignorance of the desires of its 
master; or declares the presence of some more potent influence than 
human authority. In either case, patience is the best remedy. Let the 
rider be passive until the slow understanding of the quadruped compre- 
hends his pleasure ; or until a sufficient pause has destroyed the spell 
by which the servant was enthralled. Pat the neck ; speak encourag- 
ingly to the alarmed timidity. Then gently walk the fearful life a few 
steps. In shorter time, with less trouble and with far greater safety, 
will such measures restore composure, than violence possibly can compel 
submission ; upon recovery, the acknowledgment of the master's sway 
will be revived and strengthened by that sense of gratitude which, in 
animals, reason is powerless to pervert. 

The snaffle is the gentlest indicator which the bridle possesses. It is 
generally sold in two forms — either plain or twisted. The latter sup- 
posed improvement renders its action upon the lips more sharp, the 
sharpness being proportioned to the fineness of the twist. The chain 
snaffle is, however, still more terrible in its operation, and is certainly 
better calculated to punish than to guide. A plain snaffle is, therefore, 
much to be preferred, the fact being well illustrated by the circumstance 
that the gentlemen who depend upon the milder species of check en- 
counter fewer accidents than those riders who place their reliance in 
Buch mechanical restraints as are warranted to break the jaw-bone of 
any restive animal. 





THX HACKNEY AND BIRDOON BIT. 



THE PELHAM BIT. 



The mildest of the many bits in general use is called the " Hackney," 
It is a curb bit and birdoon, having a double reined bridle. The last in- 
strument is, however, gradually being superseded by the " Pelham bit," 
which is capable of creating terrible agony. This restraint riders com- 
monly employ with double reins ; but it can be used with a single head 



SADDLERY AND HARNESS. 



523 



piece. In general it is manufactured smooth or plain, but it also can be 
twisted to any desired degree of severity. 

The " Hanoverian bit," like the majority of imported inventions, is a 
terrible exaggeration of the worst properties 
that once were thought sufficiently powerful. 
Its nature is best expressed by the phrase 
" hard and sharp," which it has almost solely 
appropriated. A horse cannot grasp this 
novelty in its teeth, and thus render futile 
an unscrupulous master's efforts to punish. 
"The Hanoverian " enables a rider to con- 
tinue the agony which may have driven a 
sensitive creature to the confines of madness. 
As the sides are movable at pleasure, it is esteemed to be an admirable 
check for a pulling quadruped. 




THE HASOTERIAN BIT. 





THE SEOUXDO BIT 



TEE CHIFFNET BIT. 



Should none of the foregoing embody the desires of some desperate 
horseman, there remains another, which is an ugly thing to be put into 
a living mouth ; it is called the " Segundo bit," and is the most barbarous 
of all the cruelties in general use. It is manufactured of three sizes ; 
the longest of which enables any Christian gentleman to inflict the most 
lively torture upon the meekest of living creatures. 

The " Chiffney bit " was once highly esteemed, and, assuredly, was 
fully equal to its pretensions ; but it seems lately to have sunk low in 
public favor. The " Sliding Mouth bit " is the last invention of this 
kind. It is thought to operate beneficially upon animals which are em- 
ployed in harness. The mouth piece is reversible, having a rough and 
a smooth side, and it is much approved of, because it professes to afford 
the horse something for the mouth to play with. 

The actions of the dumb, however, are easily mistaken. Anything 
which pains the angles of the mouth, whether it should be a roughened 



524 



CONCLUSION". 



bit or a tight bearing-rein, "will provoke the horse to toss the head into 
the air. This motion is regarded by most persons as evidence of spirit, 

and as signifying a playful disposition ; but it 
is in reality an effort to relieve for an in- 
stant the tension which drags against the lips. 
Another action which gratifies the majority 
of spectators is to behold a steed move the 
lips which are whitened with foam. Foam, 
however, only indicates the presence of thirst, 
and the reader will, upon reference to "Scald 
Mouth " in the previous volume, discover that 
rapid labial motion is not, in the horse, char- 
acteristic of amusement. 

Bits of all sorts are decided mistakes, and 
the blunder is the greater as the restraint be- 
comes the more severe. The occasional employment of such things is 
highly dangerous; their perpetual use destroys the sensibility of the 
mouth. That continued pain should deaden feeling is a wise institution, 
kindly ordained to prevent the sensibilities of this world becoming the 
playthings of barbarity. Nature protects her creatures from the inces- 
sant use of the goad by causing it to provoke numbness in the region on 
which torture would operate. The knowledge of this law should instruct 
mankind in the inutility of habitual severity; while the conviction that 
the same Tender Parent has, in madness, ordained a refuge for sudden 
agony, should teach all people not to lash the horse into that state which 
can alone render it truly dangerous. 




THE SLIDING MOUTH BIT. 



With the last sentence the main subject of the present volume has 
concluded. The reader, as he reviews the topics which have been sub- 
mitted to his judgment, is probably surprised to perceive how little of 
mystery legitimately appertains to the horse, but how much its require- 
ments accord with the dictates of "common sense." In short, "common 
sense " may be said to indicate all that the proper comprehension of the 
stable or its inhabitants need at the hands of a proprietor. 

Yet, is it not surprising that society at large regards "horse knowl- 
edge" as a mysterious attainment, to be gained only by a long course of 
actual experience ? Such a prejudice is without the slightest foundation. 
Antiquated customs and exploded notions are common enough in every 
mews. Filth is, in such places, supposed to be endowed with strange 
medicinal attributes, and cruelty is patronized as though the perfection 



CONCLUSION. 



525 



of wisdom laid in the total absence of humanity. The horse, as at pres- 
ent treated, is the victim of ignorance, and is exposed to every abuse. 
Nature and her dictates are disregarded. The animal is tortured till it 
submits to abhorrent brutalities. Its instincts, as a created being, are 
not respected; neither are its necessities, as a living creature, ever con- 
sidered. Its welfare is secondary to the convenience of the master, and 
its custody is transferred to the unscrupulous cupidity of the servant. 

^^ Common sense," however, demands these things should be amended; 
and the main purpose with which the foregoing pages were indited was 
a hope, through a plain statement of facts and an appeal to the reason 
of the public, of awakerfing those intrusted with authority over the 
equine species to the errors attendant upon the present system of 
Stable Management. 




INDEX. 



A. 

FAOE 

Abnormal condition of horn induced 

by the present mode of nailing 99 
Absence of the groom watched for... 255 
Accidents are more rare since muti- 
lation is less common 381 

might be avoided by masters be- 
ing more gentle 263 

occasioned by injudicious break- 
ing 460 

Accomplishments which fit to take 

charge of a dealer's yard 368 

According to the position of the el- 
bow so the hoofs must incline.. 412 
Action natural to a slanting shoulder 408 
necessitated by a straight shoul- 
der 405 

often witnessed before private 

cabs in London 407 

Actions of the dumb are likely to be 

misinterpreted 271 

Active animals are always disliked 

in the stable 215 

Activity constitutes the horse's 

pleasure 206 

Adapted for speed and exertion 19 

Additional bonds only provoke addi- 
tional struggles 228 

Advantage of, and peculiarities of 

the new slipper shoe Ill 

Advantages and disadvantages of all 

horns to give drinks with 74 

of the tin bottle 75 

Advantages of having the stable well 

regulated 339 

of nailing the new shoe to the toe 113 

of shoeing racers with tips 473 

Advantages secured by adopting the 

Arabian mode of nailing 105 

secured by movable mangers 191 

Advice to purchasers 121 

Affections of the horse 201 

Aftermeath, orrowen 174 

Age ought to be accurately observed 147 
renders the jaw-bone thin and 
narrow 153 



FAQB 

Ages have produced no change in 

the horse's treatment 223 

Agony is evinced by a "kidney drop- 
per," when the spine is pressed 269 
Air-passages, the, can alter their 

dimensions 25 

All animals are spoilt if too greatly 

petted 453 

in the same stable are subjected 

to the same usages 288 

creatures play with food when not 

hungry 213 

feeding and drinking compart- 
ments should rest upon the 

ground 310 

hands should help the groom when 

the horse is exhausted 348 

horses are fully worked during 

the fourth year 150 

horses do not consume the like 

quantities of food 197 

needful security assured by open 

trevises in private stables 306 

Alteration in the nippers consequent 

upon old age 136 

Alterations are made to suit the de- 
clining breed of horses 432 

in the incisors 159 

Aloes, the retention of this medicine 

within the body 165 

become hard by keeping 57 

Aloes cannot be given to some horses 56 

often kill 56 

the purgative of the stable 54 

very uncertain in its action 65 

Always choose a horse having good 

haunches 418 

see the horse led out of the stable 278 
Ambulatory, an, anticipates the ne- 
cessity of mounting in the stable 310 

Anatomical considerations 18 

Anatomists, were horses extinct, 
could tell their characters from 

their bones 17 

Ancient Arabian shoe 95 

Anecdote, about breeding horses 429 

(527) 



528 



INDEX. 



Anecdote concerning swerving in 

the horse 291 

illustrative of the evils generated 
by the present mode of exercise 303 

of a jibbing horse 284 

of the author and Van Amburg... 434 

to illustrate kiclcing 272 

Anger excited by the colt's restless- 
ness 209 

Angular prominences are upon the 
grinding surface of the new mo- 
lar tooth 156 

Animal, an, at five years old, pro- 
nounced to be in its prime 153 

not fitted for the saddle, is said to 

be suitable for harness 421 

Animals roll when their hair is un- 
comfortable 230 

after being conditioned are often 

passed by hacks 464 

are beaten when master complains 

of waste 213 

are guided by their experiences,.. 264 
are incapable of conjecturing con- 
sequences 264 

are said to eat their own heads off 367 
brought to market at three years 

old 146 

drink less, having water at com- 
mand 314 

having ewe necks are generally 

weak 391 

knowing no future, act on their 

experiences 218 

love most those who instruct them 283 
may be deeply diseased, and there- 
fore called "vicious" 271 

the, are secondary to household 

duties in genteel families 327 

■when procured, become members 

of the purchaser's family 379 

Apparatus for steaming the horse's 

food 186 

Appearance, the, of horses is the 
strongest evidence against mod- 
ern stables 231 

Appliances needed to cleanse a car- 
riage 488 

Arab horse, the, conforms to no ar- 
bitrary mould 395 

Arabian mode of fastening the 

horse's shoe 100 

Arab tail is well set on, active, and 

powerful 387 

Arnica lotion used for rick of the 

back 276 

Arrangement in the components of 

the teeth ?.. 157 

of the gutters within stables 298 

Art cannot amend a natural devel- 
opment 450 



Ascertain, to, if the horse has been 

properly groomed 340 

Aspect of the mouth materially 

changes after the first year 138 

At grass, horses enjoy free commu- 
nication 307 

Attempted cures of jibbing are un- 
certain and expensive 283 

Attends at fairs and on market days 431 

Attend to the heels on the following 

morning 352 

Author's plan of nailing 105 

suggestions should be tried for 
their own sakes 297 



B. 

Back-bone of the horse 382 

Backing on to the gangway 278 

the horse out of the stall, supposes 

the spine to be injured 278 

Back of the stables 317 

the, as seen from above 381 

the, is often injured 275 

the, is supported by eighteen ribs 

on either side 40 

Bad hay and corn commonly given 

to horses. 179 

Bad hay often cut into chaflF 177 

Bad qualities of the cow-bellied 

horse 404 

Balling, blistering, firing, and bleed- 
ing in veterinary practice 85 

Balling irons, common form of. 62 

improved form of 62 

only of use to timidity or inex- 

perince 60 

Professor Varnell's newly invented 62 

Balls, arguments in favor of 73 

caustics often employed in large 

doses with 68 

commonly intrusted to grooms 54 

horse, how made 54 

how prepared 57 

how moulded before delivery 58 

how to administer 63 

quiet mode of giving 67 

the form of 58 

the swallowing of, should be 

watched for 68 

Barouche and landau 482 

Bars or open trevises admit of equine 

familiarities 307 

Battering and fixedness aggravate 

the weakness of the fore limbs. 417 

Beans, bad sample of. 188 

Egyptian 188 

Egyptian, free from objection 188 

English, are too astringent 188 



INDEX. 



529 



Beans, English field, unwholesome 

when new 

good and bad sample of, con- 
trasted with each other 

should be steamed 

Beard is sometimes present on good 

oats 

Bearing-rein, the, interferes with 

the use of the head 

Beating the horse in a stable is dan- 
gerous 

Beauty in horses generally coincides 

with excellence of spirit 

Be brief in your inquiries in the 

dealer's yard 

Bed, a, is uncomfortable when not 

horizontal 

Beer recommended for the horse 

with a sensitive skin 

Behavior of grooms requires amend- 
ment 

to be exhibited toward dealers 

Bell, a, connected with the grooms' 
cottages, enables assistance to 

be summoned 

Benefits derived from having a stock 

of frosted shoes 

secured by a new mode of nail- 
ing......... 

Better division of work for the horse 
have no carriage than one kept in 

a damp shed 

Bird, the, returns to its cage, and the 

horse seeks its stable 

Birthday of all horses arbitrarily 

fixed by the Jockey Club 

Bishoped teeth 

Bishoping easily detected 

described 

Bit, the Pelham, its recommenda- 
tions 

the Hackney and birdoon 

the Hanoverian 

Bits attached to ladies' bridles 

buckled and sewn on 

Blackguards who sell horses are not 

horse dealers 

Black mail is exacted by most 

grooms 

Blacksmith's forge, a, during frost... 

Bleeding can, its form and use 

fleam, described 

horses should be blinded before... 

lancet not recommended for 

not necessary in many cases 

strange love of 

was formerly fashionable 

Blistering and firing often united... 

a stable right through 

often resorted to, to please the 
owner 



187 

187 
188 

180 

389 

209 

399 

374 

257 

290 

338 
373 



325 
127 

105 

342 

324 
251 



146 
134 
134 
134 

522 
522 
523 

519 
519 

138 

329 
127 
88 
89 
91 
89 
87 
86 



80 



80 



Blistering oil should be procured of 

a chemist, and diluted 82 

oil should be quite clear 82 

ointment is made with old flies.... 82 

omnibus horses 81 

Blisters and oak bark proposed for 

rick of the back 275 

and the firing iron counteract each 

other 78 

are at present too powerful 78 

only of late years have been re- 
duced in strength 78 

Blood horses draw weight by strain 

upon the muscles 401 

can should be pressed against the 

neck 91 

if cold, and exposed to the air, 

becomes oxygenated 24 

mare and foal 430 

stick depicted 90 

when cold, has lost its living 

properties 245 

Bloods want an infusion of a little 

cocktail 433 

Body, horse's, beautiful when skin- 
ned 45 

the, anatomically considered 17 

the, should be judged of as a 

whole 386 

Boilei'-house between the gig-house 

and first loose box 321 

Bolting commonly ensues after a fit 

of jibbing 280 

through the stable door 239 

Bone bears the burden when the 

body descends a slope 253 

Bones, character of the animal pro- 
nounced by 17 

of the fore extremity, how retained 

in their jjlaces 42 

of the spine described 38 

of the forelegs, their action is 

regulated by the shoulders 408 

Bones, the, of the leg do not uphold 

each other 408 

Boy picking hay 172 

Boys should not be employed to lead 

horses through stable doors 240 

the, about training stables are 

not trustworthy 470 

Bracy Clark's jointed shoe, remarks 

on 118 

Bray of the donkey and neigh of the 

horse, how produced 47 

Brain, the, becomes congested by 

moving in circles 451 

Branch drains also oppose the in- 
gress of rats 300 

Branches of the lower jaw contract 

with age 136 

Bran mashes, how to prepare 55 



34 



530 



INDEX. 



Bran mashes, more gentle and more 

safe than aloes 55 

Breaches of stable decorum by young 

horses 207 

Bread, given to horses in Germany, 

might be used as food 195 

Breaker, the, operates only on the 

fears of the colt 453 

Breaking and training 449 

begins at three years old 147 

loose 217 

should be gradually enforced from 

the earliest age 455 

Breaks are not often publicly used 

to exercise horses in 304 

Breast collar-strap 507 

Breathing life treated as it were an 

inanimate chattel 200 

Breeders should take example from 

the agriculturists 428 

Breeding, its inconsistencies and its 

disappointments. 427 

of horses is at present altogether 

wrong 437 

suckling, and living on grass 446 

Bricks and mortar are valueless in 

comparison with horse flesh 298 

Bricklayer's trowel likened to the 

teeth 158 

Bringing the sole near to the ground, 

danger of 102 

Brittle hoof 99 

Brougham horse, a 371 

Brougham or phaeton harness 503 

Brushing or cutting about the pas- 
tern joint 121 

Bulk is not always an assurance of 

strength 419 

merely distends and injures the 

stomach 177 

Bull neck, a 391 

Bustle hails the appearance of a 

stranger in the stable 204 

Buy a young horse by the teeth as 

regards age 164 



c. 

Calkins destroying the even bearing 

of the foot 109 

in the slipper shoe made by thin- 
ning the quarters Ill 

Can, bleeding, its form and use 88 

blood should be pressed against 

the neck 91 

horses have aristocratic predilec- 
tions 215 

Capacity of most doors to stables... 235 
Capital and tact required to job car- 
riages successfully 368 



Carriage, a, without C springs, and 

a brougham 483 

harness, a full suit of 504 

horses are not kept by the Lon- 
don dealers 367 

houses are always large enough... 233 
the treatment required for, when 

in its house 492 

Carriages 477 

congregate on wet nights before 

fashionable mansions 323 

Carrying round the food to the sta- 
bles 192 

Carters sit upon the loins of young 

horses 265 

Cart horse, a 401 

with a Roman nose 394 

horses are not formed to trot 273 

have long mustaches 394 

Cartilago nictitans 36 

its special use and action 36 

Carts should never exist without 

springs 386 

Cast in the stall 231 

under the manger 259 

Cause of chink of the back is the 

greed of proprietors 273 

Cause of odd hoofs in the horse 413 

Causes of cutting 121 

which increase the liability of the 

foreleg to injury 416 

Caustics dangerous as internal medi- 
cine 59 

Cavity of the pulp in the molar teeth 157 
Ceiling of stables, how it is formed 316 
Certain steeds snap and bite when 

being dressed too violently 289 

Channel diminishes with age 136 

Character and color of upland hay 173 

lowland hay 173 

Cheap harness is generally danger- 
ous 496 

horses are not to be bought in 

London 359 

Cheapness is not economy when 

buying oats 182 

Chifi"neybit, the 523 

Child, a, might sit the thorough- 
bred trot 421 

Chink of the back 266 

Circular chest, the, good for slow 

work 401 

exercise 452 

motion induces blindness 451 

Clark, of Edinburgh, his old shoe 

preferred to new inventions 121 

Classic mind, the, recognized the 

signification of the horse 242 

Clean saddle, how to 516 

Cleaning harness, the proper method 

of 504 



INDEX. 



531 



Cleansing and cooling with hot and 

cold water 349 

an exhausted horse 348 

an undipped horse 347 

Clearing the fence 462 

Cleaveland bays are a dangerous 

property 368 

Clinches are more secure when made 

upon the toe 114 

Clicking or forging common toward 

the end of a long journey 124 

Clipped horse, a, is a deformity 346 

Clipping and singeing 343 

induce many terrible disorders.... 344 

Clock-loft and lumber-room above 

the sheltered space 320 

Closing the wound after having bled 

the horse 92 

Clothes and saddle cannot be re- 
tained on the herring-gutted 
horse 404 

Clover hay, first crop of 174 

second crop of. 175 

Coal-cellar 319 

Coaxing the foal to feed 444 

Coax the horse when giving medicine 78 

Collar-rope is bitten through with- 
out design 216 

Collar- strap disfigures the neck and 

mane 218 

Colt at three years may cut sixteen 

teeth 149 

Colts are way ward creatures 207 

Comminution of the food described.. 155 

Common form of horn employed to 

administer drinks 74 

Common sense is alone necessary to 

understand horses 524 

Common stallions are generally led 

through the country 431 

Comparison between the wild and 

domesticated horse 201 

Complex calculations required of the 

horse dealer 362 

Composure returns only when the 

rug is destroyed 287 

Compound soap liniment recom- 
mended for rick of the back 275 

Condition of horses referred to 432 

of stable windows generally 315 

of the blood explains the diseases 
of the foot 246 

Conduct of most drivers when the 

horse bolts 293 

Conjunctiva, nature and distribution 

of 35 

Consequences of being cast in the 

collar-rope 224 

of being cast under the manger... 259 
of too much paring, miscalled dis- 
ease 106 



Contents of the abdomen and thorax 403 
Continued standing is a bad symp- 
tom 352 

Contraction of the jaw-bones forces 

the teeth into the mouth 158 

Contrast between a three-year old 
and a bishoped sixteen-year old 

mouth 135 

between the permanent and milk 

incisor teeth 160 

Cooking food for horses no novelty 193 
Copers esteem a kidney dropper a 

valuable horse 269 

the, always flurry a horse when 

pretending to show it 277 

Corner incisors first cut at nine 

months old 141 

milk incisors, being shed, an- 
nounce five years old 153 

Corns are natural to upright hoofs... 415 

Corn promotes fat 187 

should be crushed on the prem- 
ises 184 

when crushed, requires further 

preparation 186 

Corpora nigra, present in the horse 

and camel 31 

Cost of a separate Jiouse for the 
groom would be fifteen pounds 

per annum 333 

of horse flesh is much increased by 

hard food 166 

Coughing, its danger during the ad- 
ministration of a drink 75 

provoked by raising the head 76 

Countenance during a fit of jibbing 282 

Countersinking for driving nails 113 

Course of the food, how ai-ranged... 28 

Covered ride round the stable 302 

Cow-bellied or pot-bellied horse, the 

evils of. 404 

Cribbing induced by confinement 

and indigestion 205 

Crime is the climax of social frailty 426 
Crowded forges prevented by laying 

in a stock of frosted shoes 127 

Cruel imprisonment 201 

Cruelties undergone at three years 

old 148 

Cruelty and roguery are associated.. 425 

cannot promote development 164 

is practiced to coerce the jibber... 280 
of rasping the hoof to fit a small 

shoe 131 

of the present mode of breaking in 141 

resorted to after bleeding 94 

sometimes changes the action of 

the straight shoulder 406 

unintentionally inflicted on all 

horses 168 

Cruiser and Mr. Earey 453 



532 



INDEX. 



Crusta petrosa 157 

is endowed with a limited power 

of growth 158 

Cures proposed for cutting from ex- 

. haustion 122 

Curry-comb should be abolished 337 

Curveting and lunging are alike in 

their influences 449 

Customers are protected by the au- 
thor's recommendations 378 

should be better suited than 

pleased 364 

Custom of the drivers attached to 

the former fly wagons 265 

Cutting away the horny sole 108 

often produced by exhaustion 123 



D. 

Damp stables are equally costly and 

dangerous 322 

Danger consequent upon the inter- 
nal use of caustics 59 

of casting the entire weight upon 

the wall 103 

of coughing during the giving of 

a drink 75 

of getting the hind leg beyond the 

post of the stall 230 

of gorging on dry wheat 109 

of standing in the manger 209 

Dangers of racing plates 114 

of the present method of nailing.. 100 
Darkness does not incapacitate the 

horse's eye 32 

Date is apt to deceive the breeder... 440 

Dead donkeys not rare 47 

Dealers buy with a view to certain 

purchasers 375 

do not show all their stock to 

every chance customer 138 

generally possess one or two 

blood-weeds 369 

horses are exercised in front of 

the house windows 304 

take much trouble to buy horses.. 359 
visit horse fairs and breeders of 

stock 364 

will not submit a horse of known 
unsoundness to a veterinary ex- 
amination 378 

Deformity consequent on neglect of 

the hoof 102 

Deglutition described 29 

Degree of motion permitted in the 

stable 202 

Deluging with water does not please 

the horse 346 

Dentine 157 



Depth of the lower jaw in the young 

horse accounted for 157 

Deranged stomach denoted by fas- 
tidious and by voracious appe- 
tite 196 

Detailed description of the surface- 
gutters of the stable 299 

Development of the hyoideal muscles 400 
Diagrams of the opposite formation 

of thorax 402 

Difference between fullering and 

countersinking 113 

between man and horse in their 

lodging 233 

in the food of man and horse when 

in training 170 

of head in a one and a two-year old 144 
Different articles eaten by horses ... 166 

forms of pasterns 410 

kinds of ears 396 

kinds of snaffles 521 

Digestion deranged by modern sta- 
bles and present food 196 

of the horse is frequently impaired 342 
Disease in the horse is exposed to 

the conjectures of ignorance 285 

Discovered in the morning with the 

head under the manger 258 

Dishonest dealers alwo.ys demand a 

written warranty 365 

Disposition of the horse should be 

studied 77 

Dock, the, should be regarded as a 

continuation of the back-bone.. 386 
Domesticated animals generally live 

on prepared food 167 

horse is very old by its thirtieth 

year 165 

Donkey, the, belongs to the equine 

race 46 

Donkeys natural to the sandy desert 48 
have to toil after man's day of la- 
bor has ended 51 

prejudices concerning, tend to 

their misery 51 

serve only the poor 49 

the loins of, uphold riders 51 

thrust into any hole for the night. 49 
work before the master begins to 

labor 50 

Do not coax a tired horse to feed..., 351 
Do not punish the horse for jibbing. 281 
Doors of stables should fold, or be 

divided through the center 307 

open on to the ambulatory 307 

size of, according to Professor 

Stewart 235 

Double coach-house 319 

Doubt as to the weakness of a hol- 
low back 384 

Down in the hip 237 



INDEX. 



633 



Drag on the clinches the conse- 
quence of the thin heel shoe.... 120 
Draught horses require high and 

good haunches 421 

Draughts in crowded stables enable 

the horses to live 81 

Draughtsmen, their qualifications... 478 
Dress, a, carriage and a chariot...... 482 

Dressing the heels 358 

the horse 340 

Drinking, the manner of, explained. 71 
Drinks or draughts, a form of horse 

physic 68 

danger of administering ■ 69 

generally objected to 68 

reasons for these objections 68 

sometimes poured down the nos- 
tril 69 

the objection to so giving medi- 
cine 73 

usual mode of giving 74 

Driving a nail too fine 100 

Dry fodder prematurely wears down 

the teeth 133 

Drying the heels 350 

Dryness affects the nature of the 

horse's food 171 

Dusk, and at ten o'clock, duties of... 341 
Duties of the night-watcher 325 



E. 

Each groom should lead two horses 

to exercise 306 

Earning its keep during lactation... 436 
Early and late is the best time for 

exercise 466 

Ears, different kinds of 396 

Eastern elevation of the contem- 
plated stables 325 

Education, modern, makes men 

knowing and not good 198 

should commence with birth 455 

EflFects of living upon grass in the 

field 430 

Egyptian beans are mild and sweet.. 188 
Eight months' solitarj- imprisonment 

is not rest 475 

Eight o'clock duties 340 

Employers should be blamed for the 

groom's debasement 330 

Employment of the drawing knife a 

necessity 106 

Enamel 157 

English mode of paring the foot 102 

thorough-bred tail approaches to 

the Arab 387 

Entire horses are not necessarily 

savages 433 



Entreaty not to credit the possibility 

of a "vicious animal" 294 

Equine race, the, are treated as 
creatures without habits or in- 
stincts 241 

Estimable qualities of hollow-backed 

horses 384 

Even man's generosity causes the 

horse to suffer 475 

Every gentleman his own horse- 
breaker 453 

Everything in the stable yields trib- 
ute to the groom 330 

Evils of long nights to horses and to 

grooms 198 

of modern stables 200 

Ewe neck, an 391 

Exaggerated view of a weakly ani- 
mal with dangerous action 424 

Examine the angles of the mouth 

before purchasing 398 

Excellence of the racer's action in 

the trot 420 

Excessive weakness has lost many a 

race 472 

Exchanges, with horses, are very 

expensive 373 

Excited horse, mouth of an 288 

Excitement ensues upon first snifiBng 

the pure air 334 

prevented by rapidly and silently 
distributing the food 312 

Exercise, during training, is given 

at mid-day 466 

can be given in all weathers under 
the ambulatory 303 

Exhausting labor renders bleeding 

unnecessary 87 

Exhaustion in youth is a bad pre- 
parative for the stud-farm 428 

Expense of feeding the horse, how 

increased 193 

would not be increased by proper 
treatment 463 

Experiments, uselessness of, as a test 

for medicine 60 

Experiment, testing the effects of a 

thick and of a thin covei'ing 344 

Explanation of the doctor's difliculty 303 

of the term "May bird" 364 

of the word "nicking" 387 

Expression of the ears 396 

Extended view obtained by mount- 
ing into the manger 210 

Extravagance of hard food 166 

Extreme age rare in the horse 88 

Eye, the, is a certificate of the horse's 

origin 30 

Eyes, the, of the horse are much 

exposed to injury 291 

various sorts of 397 



534 



INDES. 



P. 

Foetus, the, is injured by the mother 

being sucked while breeding.... 445 
False nostrils, situation, nature and 

uses of 25 

Fancy is most active in the weakest 

intellects 227 

Fangs of the milk teeth are absorbed 160 
Farmers, the, idea of a breeding mare 447 
Fat is laid on, although lameness 

exists in the foreleg 243 

is promoted by the food — horses 

are sweated to remove fat 467 

Faults inseparable from stables 233 

Fearful change takes place when a 

horse is "thrown up" to breed. 435 

Fed between the bursts 472 

Feeding of the grazing and the sta- 
bled horse 429 

the mare 455 

the newly-born foal 443 

Feeling, instincts or inclinations of 

the horse are never heeded, 198 

Feet of farm horses are generally 

sound 246 

of thorough-breds generally bad.. 115 

Felt under-pad 512 

Few gentlemen's stables are sup- 
plied with the best grain 181 

grooms live in the house 327 

horse dealers die rich 367 

horses reach their thirtieth year .. 155 
human beings should be exposed 
to the groom's temptations.. ... 330 

tails are well set on 387 

Fleam, the, as made to be struck by 

the hand 89 

the, is preferable to the lancet.... 89 
the, described as used for bleeding 89 
Field (newspaper) description of 

roughing, from 129 

Fifth molar present by the second 

year 145 

Fired, sometimes, and blistered af- 
ter it 78 

Fire has been kindled under a jib- 
bing horse 281 

First crop of clover 174 

drops of blood taken from the 

forefoot are cold 243 

lessons in breaking should com- 
mence with the foal 141 

permanent tooth appears at one 

year old 142 

the, harness put on a foal 456 

Fittings needed for the interior of a 

carriage 490 

of the sheltered space 320 

Five-feet wide doors do very well for 

sleepy animals 237 



Flattery is much relished by all 

lower life 456 

Flesh is only another name for mus- 
cle 381 

Flexor muscle, the, influences the 

direction of the foot 412 

Flooring of the proposed stables 

described 298 

Foal first nips the grass when four 

months old 141 

one fortnight after birth 139 

the, may accompany the mare in 

her work 436 

Foals are generally crippled before 

they are born 428 

should be taught to regard men 

as friends 444 

teeth at birth 139 

Folly of docking 380 

of employing blisters to the legs.. 79 
of ornamental scroll work instead 

of plain bars 306 

of tying a horse by its head to 

the manger 225 

Food 168 

for the foal if the mare's milk is 

tardy 443 

not thoroughly digested when pre- 
sented dry 165 

of horses is contaminated in mod- 
ern stables 318 

proper for an exhausted horse 347 

should be proj^ortioned to the ani- 
mal's fatigue 351 

the greatest of many evils under 

which horses suffer 169 

when too abundant is wasted 212 

Foot, the, perspires through the horn 353 

Foreleg over the collar-rope 221 

Forelegs in the manger 208 

Forelimb is not a straight pillar 409 

the, is joined to the trunk by mus- 
cle 41 

Forge, horse's dread of 109 

strange custom of charging differ- 
ent prices in 110 

the state of the, during a sudden 

frost 127 

Formation of the soil of stable 301 

Former shoes, unsuit for modern use 96 
Form of thorax which is best suited 

for slow and for fast work 402 

the, of a mare for breeding 438 

Four fully-grown permanent incis- 
ors only denote three years of 

age 147 

miles an hour is a fair exercising 

pace 305 

or five o'clock duties 341 

permanent incisors in each jaw 
announce four years old 152 



INDEX. 



535 



Four "roomy" stalls may be con- 

Terted into three loose boxes.... 332 

Fourth molar is the first permanent 

tooth .. 142 

year, at the, the horse should be 
taught to leap 416 

Four-year olds are thought to need 

no indulgence 151 

Four-year old colt may be placed 

between shafts 459 

Fracture of the haunch disqualifies 

for a gentleman's service 238 

Freedom is naturally desired by the 

horse 220 

Freemasonry, the, which exists be- 
tween steed and rider 372 

French martingale, the use of 518 

revolution, the nobleman and Bas- 
tile 252 

Frequent change of shoes injures 

the feet of thorough-breds 473 

Friction, when brisk, warms more 

than slow walking exercise 352 

Frog and sole injured by the wedge- 
heeled shoe 119 

Front of the new stable has no in- 
termediate rails 319 

teeth appear to be but temporary. 145 
teeth stick out like spikes at thirty 
years of age 167 

Frosted shoes worn out in three or 

four days 128 

Frosting or roughing as generally 

performed 128 

Fullered shoe 113 

Full loins are generally associated 

with a stout dock 893 

set of horse clothes 498 

Fuzzy tail disappears at one-year old 143 

6. 

Crangway, the, should be kept clean 338 
General complaint of the roguery of 

horse dealers 425 

mode of leading the horse out of 

the stable 236 

view of the shoulder and foreleg.. 416 
Gentlemen like the springy seat af- 
forded by a young spine 146 

should respect their station when 

treating with dealers 378 

when ignorant of horse flesh, 

should not attempt display 370 

Gentleness and caution requisite 

when trying a fresh horse 372 

should be displayed during a fit 

of jibbing 282 

Gentle riding and proper grooming 

would sustain condition 475 



German silver makes the best orna- 
ments for harness 496 

Gestation is opposed to lactation 445 

Get up 351 

Gig, a, and a two-wheeled dog cart.. 485 

Gig harness and kicking-strap 602 

house 319 

Girths of saddles generally consid- 
ered 509 

Giving a horse a quart of malt liquor 347 

out macerated food 191 

Glycerin and rose-water removes 

scurf. 290 

wash, the mode of applying it to 

the skin 337 

Gnawing the manger rail the result 

of long captivity 204 

Good bridle, the characteristics of... 517 
feeders are too commonly sluggish 

animals 352 

form, a, generally requires little 

aid in foaling 439 

horse, the, is good for every pur- 
pose 420 

oatmeal, how to recognize 178 

oats display no vast difference in 

size 180 

reach, a, in the trot, a valuable 

quality in a hack 420 

saddle, a, should fall into its 

proper place 515 

shoes are spoiled by being i-oughed 128 
Gowing's, Mr., mode of giving a 

ball 65 

its advantages and defects 66 

Graced with the sweetest manners, 

sells the horses 362 

Grass, horses are generally shod with 

tips when out at 116 

suggests the food of the horse 20 

the natural food of the undomes- 

ticated horse 133 

Great muscular power is necessi- 
tated to move the head 388 

Greenhorns disliked by the regular 

dealer 373 

Green meat and mashes are better 

than aloes 469 

Grooms 327 

conceive the horse injures them... 222 
display the union of innocence and 

knowingness 354 

doing house work generally neg- 
lect the stable 355 

flog the horse for standing in the 

gutter 257 

generally manage their nominal 

masters 229 

imagine the foot to be a mystery.. 353 

like fat in horses 212 

like the horse to have hard meat., 193 



536 



INDEX. 



Grooms never regard cutaneous sen- 
sitiveness as a disease 285 

pretend to comprehend impossi- 
bilities 355 

pride themselves upon being 
"close" 355 

regard see-sawing as a fearful 
"vice" 205 

report effects, and never hint at 
causes 229 

ride as they please when exercis- 
ing horses 303 

singe the hairs inside the horse's 
cars 395 

should not ride when exercising 

horses 306 

Groom's room is situated over the 

boiler-house 324 

idea of a horse's long imprison- 
ment 211 

secret mixtures are the originals 

of patent food 196 

Ground plan of the proposed stables 321 
Gruel is proper for an exhausted 

horse 351 

Guess only at the age after the fifth 

year 163 



H. 

Hair should never be inclosed in the 

wound after bleeding 93 

Hairs from oats are felted together 

in the stomach 183 

on the oat 182 

Half an acre of close grass should be 

attached to each loose box 309 

Hames with double eyes 506 

Handling the feet 457 

Hand-over-hand pace, the, is bad... 423 

Hard food must be a tax on the 

muscular system 467 

provender wears the teeth and 

shortens the life 165 

substances derange the horse's di- 
gestion 186 

Hardships undergone at three years 

old 148 

Harness and food are benefited when 

separated from stables 317 

and stable sundries 494 

for the young 456 

horses are usually imperfectly 
broken 459 

Hat, the, should be removed before 

a horse is led out of the stable.. 240 

Haunch-bone is often broken by 

striking against the door-post., 238 

Haunches, the, will express the qual- 
ities of the horse 419 



Hay, aftermeath 174 

clover, first crop 174 

second crop 175 

from legumens might cost more, 

but would be better 189 

heated 175 

loft, the, should be over the coach- 
house 333 

lowland 173 

musty 176 

promotes fat 189 

should be sorted before it is placed 

in the rack 171 

upland 172 

weather beaten 176 

Head, carried straight out is un- 
graceful and unsafe 390 

the, must be retracted before the 

horse can rise 260 

the, by its movements inclines the 

body in certain directions 380 

the, denotes the treatment of the 

horse 393 

Health suffers from improper food .. 169 
Heaped manger unsuited for a fam- 
ished horse 178 

Heat and impurity naturally pro- 
voke cuticular irritability 224 

and moisture correct the un- 

wholcsomeness of food , 190 

Heaving at the flanks 440 

Heavy animals were formerly used 

for gentle purposes 422 

carts having long reins are inju- 
rious to the horse's spine 273 

Heels are left unprotected if the 

shoeing is neglected 106 

Herald painting — how its charges 

are regulated 478 

Herbs, when dried, retain their prop- 
erties 171 

Herring-gutted horse, the disad- 
vantages of 403 

High-spirited horses are the most 

troublesome when confined 215 

stubborn horn the author prefers 

in the horse's foot 414 

Hind hoofs enjoy a freedom denied 

to the forefeet 244 

legs, the, have a tendency to in- 
crease the burden of the fore 

limbs 417 

Hinge of the spine for rearing 44 

Hobble the hind legs of a mare 441 

Hogs' skins are seldom perfect 515 

Hollow-backed horse 383 

cavity at the toe of the slipper shoe 111 
Home, a, for a horse is not the same 

thing as a home for a man 298 

Hoofs are spoiled by roughing dur- 
ing frost 128 



INDEX. 



53T 



Hopeless struggle of mankind 200 

Horn for giving drinks, common 

form of. 74 

improved form of. 74 

of the hoof described 98 

whalebone and wood are best for 

stable instruments 336 

Horse auction marts deal largely in 

unsound horses 277 

a, when sold should suit the pur- 
chaser 361 

dealers 357 

dealers are alive to the value of 

their stock 379 

dealers generally occupy the same 

place at successive fairs 365 

is intended to run unshod over 

grass land 116 

is very choice when eating grass. 170 
its disposition should be studied... 77 
lowers the head to feed and 

drink 170 

the, cannot turn in its stall with- 
out twisting the back 279 

the, has embraced its position 252 

the, has not changed with the mu- 
tation of society 449 

the, squatting suddenly like a dog 

denotes a kidney dropper 267 

knowledge is not a mystery 524 

Horses when they speedy cut are 

liable to fall, as though shot.... 423 
should be taken into use with bo- 
dies uninjured 463 

are always blamed for human 

carelessness 234 

are by grooms credited only with 

evil qualities 216 

are furnished with the means of 

self-injury 262 

are inclined to rest at mid-day 468 

are often captives for many days 

in the stall 211 

are put to the greatest exertion at 

five years of age 153 

are seldom dressed when brought 

home late 230 

are starved when confined to small 

stables 81 

body still beautiful even when the 

skin is removed 45 

can protrude their heads through 

the half-opened doors. 308 

can see in comparative darkness.. 228 

dread the foi'ge 109 

eating from the ground, require 

no hay-rack 310 

eat various substances in different 

countries 194 

have no right to do as they like 

with their lives 207 



Horses have perished from all four 

feet being blistered 78 

have to sleep on slanting pave- 
ment 256 

having wide hips and large thighs 

very seldom cut 122 

intended to breed should be ten- 
derly nurtured 435 

lower the head while drinking 76 

must feel their captivity 202 

should be exercised on the prem- 
ises 304 

slide backward on the slanting 

pavement 259 

the, pa^inted by Stubbs, are lost to 

the present generation 407 

their rest broken by the inclina- 
tion of their beds 257 

which kick when the foot is in the 
stirrup are often quiet when 

mounted 272 

clothes generally much too short.. 350 
Horse flesh is being ruined by the 

race-course 432 

Hot-water pipes traverse the pro- 
posed stable 322 

How grooms contrive to spend so 

much money 329 

to examine for kidney dropping... 268 

for the signs of cutting 423 

to feed a famished animal 178 

to feed a hunter 471 

to feed the mare and foal 443 

to make good gruel 178 

to macerate food 190 

to procure good oats 182 

to recognize a bishoped tooth 134 

Human child not a man when the 

permanent teeth appear 162 

Humanity in purchasers would de- 
stroy roguery in dealers 425 

Hunters, as a rule, are not kept by 

the London trade 369 

must be over four years old 146 

Hunting breast-plate 511 



I. 



Impaling the foot on a projecting 

nail 101 

Imperfect vision renders a horse 

dangerous 293 

Importance of warmth to the horse.. 322 
Impossible to convince most grooms. 220 
to make the teeth declare a horse 

older than it really is 168 

Imprisonment engenders eagerness 

to breathe the fresh air 237 

Improvement has not reached the 

jail of the horse 297 



538 



INDEX. 



Impure air, sameness of food, and 

confinement generate disease.... 243 
residence, an, generates a morbid 
craving 329 

In cavalry stables, horses are sepa- 
rated by bales 307 

Incisor teeth are not employed in 

the stable 167 

Incisors, the, which denote a three- 
year old 147 

Inclination of the feet of horses 412 

Incline of the superficial gutters — 301 

Inferior margin of the jaw still thick 

at four yeai's old 151 

oats possess the longest hairs 183 

specimens of oats commonly adul- 
terated 179 

Injury done by boys who hold your 

honor's horse 124 

occasioned to the crust of the 

hoof by nailing 100 

often done by the laws of the 

Jockey Club 146 

or blemish is feared by dealers as 
much as death 366 

Inquiry into the conduct of colt and 

groom 209 

Instinctive acts in man 295 

Instruction properly imparted does 

not strain the body 461 

Interior of the stable should be 

colored green 316 

In the end, it is cheapest to act justly 331 
field, horses rest with the hind 

legs highest 247 

stable, horses stand with the fore- 
feet highest 248 

Inward soft organs govern the hard- 
est outward secretions 118 

Irish horses are famed as good 

fencers 462 

Itching and scratching rank as vices 

in the stable 223 



J. 

Jaw-bone becomes thin and narrow 

with age 153 

in early life, is full and round at 

the lower margin 142 

Jaw, the, of a two-year old intimates 

approaching change 145 

Jealousy regarding a choice colt 376 

Jibbing first alluded to 280 

is as common now as it was for- 
merly 286 

is equine epilepsy 280 

most common in heavy and in har- 
ness horses 282 



Jobbing requires skill in placing 

horses 868 

Job-masters assert the straight 
shoulder is the best for harness 

purposes 406 

the, terms of 368 

Jockey Club, folly of its laws 146 

further alluded to 163 

Jolly fun of the trainer's stable 470 



E. 

Keep the stableman to his duties.... 355 
Kettle, a two-gallon, wanted in every 

stable 178 

Kicker, a, and a biter 434 

Kickers often stand quiet when 

mounted on the opposite side... 278 

Kicking in the night 227 

"Kidney dropping" is esteemed a 

terrible "vice" 266 

Kidneys, the, are not concerned in 
what is termed "kidney drop- 
ping" 270 

Kiln-dried oats, to detect 185 

"Kim ovare" 336 

Kindle an opposite emotion and fear 

is destroyed 293 

Kindness preferable to any mechani- 
cal restraint 61 

is especially remunerative when 

bestowed xipon the mare 437 

is responded to even when con- 
sciousness is partly lost 283 

Kinds of horn composing the wall of 

the hoof. 98 

Know your own wants before a 

dealer's yard is entered 873 

Konisberg oats 180 



I.. 

Labial action often mistaken in the 

horse 624 

Lachrymal gland 35 

Lad, a, should be allowed in every 

stable 332 

Ladies flushed from the ball-room 

often sleep in damp carriages... 323 

patent stirrup 514 

Lady, the, and the magistrate 164 

Lady'spalfrey in the reign of Charles 

the Second 422 

side-saddle 513 

bridle is generally light 517 

"Lampas" explained 157 

Lamps, large and small, for a car- 
riage 492 



INDEX. 



539 



Large lungs favor the increase of 

weight 401 

nostrils and mouth show breeding 

in a horse 397 

stables are generally well man- 
aged 332 

Lying on the gangway 261 

Lead liniment softens the exudation 

after blistering. 84 

Leanness of hay-fed horses ac- 
counted for 189 

Leaping, how it should be taught... 461 
Legitimate horse dealers, all have 

private yards 358 

as a body, are honorable men 360 

Legs, lower parts of the, contain no 

muscles to stimulate 82 

of the horse highly sensitive 79 

Legumens, sown broadcast and 
reaped, form a better kind of 

hay 189 

Length of back is of no separate im- 
portance 386 

Let no man talk about a "vicious 

horse"' 295 

Licking the manger, an endeavor to 

make employment 204 

Life is fixed to no one condition 371 

Light draught horses can best dis- 
pense with muscular loins 383 

generally stops the kicking in the 

night 227 

should always be present in the 

stable 228 

work need only exercise the mare 436 
Lining of harness is soiled by bad 

grooms 505 

Liquid which drains from steamed 

food is a nutritious drink 186 

Liquor arsenicalis is good for the 

skin 290 

Load, the, being delivered, the heavy 

cart is trotted back 273 

Locality for the proposed stable 319 

Lofty crest, a, is best induced by 

proper food 460 

Loins, the, are without bony support 382 
cannot be too large or muscular.. 382 
transmit the force of the haunches 382 
the spines of, and of the sacrum, 

point different ways 44 

Long and short legs, the value of 

each 405 

Loop, a, of string, used instead of a 

twitch 75 

Loose boxes eighteen feet square ... 298 
would cure many "vices" of the 

stable 222 

shoes, perils of...... 101 

Low-bred haunches express weak- 
ness 418 



Lower jaw becomes sharp with age. 136 

Lowland hay 173 

Lunging 451 

Lungs, capacity of, illustrated 19 



M. 

Mail phaeton, a, and four-wheeled 

dog cart 484 

Malt liquor, horses soon grow fond 

of 347 

Man alarms the horse by needless 

cruelties 268 

alone has conceived a life without 

a pleasure 206 

and horse supposed to change po- 
sitions — the result 206 

could not create the perfection 

which he injures 44 

is not more gregarious than the 

horse 474 

is not more humane than formerly 381 
is to blame for the horse's stable 

conduct 211 

neglects the life which cannot be 

repaired 284 

not fitted to exert absolute au- 
thority 80 

and horse are not a match in 

strength., 521 

Man's fingers, a, cannot test the ex- 
pansibility of a horse's foot 415 

responsibility, how evaded 53 

senseless adherence to antiquated 

forms 452 

Manger, the, rope fastens the head 
immediately under the opening 

to the hay-loft 310 

Manner of judging the limbs 423 

of using the blood can 92 

Manners, the, requisite in a horse 

dealer 361 

Many animals are ruined in the 

breaking 452 

animals become restless when 

clothed for the night 286 

artisans, conjunction of, to form a 

carriage manufactory 479 

grooms also expected to act as 

gardeners 327 

horses are unable to pass through 

a stable door with calmness 239 

houses have doors far larger than 

any stable 285 

horses lamed by the wedge-heeled 

shoe 119 

muscles of the haunch rise close 

to the dock 387 

smiths will profess to cure click- 
ing 125 



540 



INDEX. 



Many things must change before 

present customs alter 331 

Mare, a, generally hardly treated ... 445 
Marks of the teeth are unworthy of 

dependence 137 

Macerating box for food 190 

Mastication a compound process 155 

Master and groom like a quiet stable 203 

May bird .• 364 

Medicine, the less the better during 

training ....« 469 

Melton girth and martingale 509 

Men desire only to know the physi- 
cal necessities and capabilities 

of the horse 199 

who know nothing of such mat- 
ters, order the building of sta- 
bles 234 

Meshwork of veins, a, lies under 
the secreting membrane of the 

hoof 245 

Method of treating the newly-born 

foal 443 

Midst noise and bustle the horse 

dealer must be calm 361 

Might not Egyptian beans be grown 

in England? 188 

Miles's works on the horse's feet 

recommended 415 

Miniature dewlap a good point 400 

Minor operations 53 

Mistake, the, of a summer's rest 464 

Mode of dressing a wet horse 349 

of distributing food to restless 

horse 312 

of fastening the Arabian shoe 100 

of sitting the horse in the olden 

time 450 

Model foot, the, is not good in the 

author's opinion 414 

Modern Arabian shoe 95 

carriages are fraught with danger 

to the upper classes 323 

mode of nailing 97 

stables as they may be adapted.... 332 

stables invite accidents 262 

Molars are not level in aged horses. 154 
Molar teeth are not all of one size 

or the like form 155 

tooth of an aged horse 159 

Money does not constitute the entire 

price of a good horse 375 

is saved by encouraging habits of 

regularity 318 

paid to the job-master 369 

sunk in stables is most remunera- 
tive 298 

More bonds do not destroy the desire 

to be free 220 

important portion of the groom's 
duties 343 



Morning exercise should begin the 

day's work 340 

exercise, the, is essential to the 

master's safety , 334 

Most corn-chandlers do not keep the 

heavier oats 182 

horsemen do not comprehend the 

utility of the neck 389 

masters only know their horses 

through the groom's report 222 

people who buy and sell horses 

are cheats 357 

well-bred horses have stubborn 

necks 390 

Mother's milk, allowed to the young, 

best secures development 446 

Motion and sensation of the hind 

limbs depend on the spinal cord 270 
of the quarters aids the pedal cir- 
culation 114 

Mounting a horse is a good test for 

its excellence 417 

Mouths, large, small, and dejected.. 397 

Movable and fixed ring 507 

manger 191 

Movement of the feet is regulated by 

the condition of the body 126 

Mr. Lupton's recommendation of 

White's method of roughing 129 

Mr. Percival rode an animal shod 

with tips on the London stones. 116 
Mucous membrane, when inflamed, 

greatly weakens 465 

Much would be gained if the reader 
only acknowledged the writer 

right in theory 468 

is learned by watching the groom 

lead a horse out of the stable... 278 
the same now as in the seven- 
teenth century 449 

Muscles exist in pairs 253 

how these operate upon the eye... 33 
the, of mastication force the ven- 
ous blood to the heart 23 

Musty hay 176 

Mysterious conduct of grooms 335 



Nags are now more ridden by others 

than by their masters 334 

Nails, reasons for driving into the toe 113 

Natural process of drinking de 

scribed 70 

diagram, of 71 

Nature does not obey the laws of the 

Jockey Club 146 

has allowed vacarit spaces to exist, 
so as to preserve the beauty of 
the head 27 



INDEX. 



541 



Nature pauses after the first year... 1-14 
should decide the period of lacta- 
tion 446 

Nature's toil regulated by density of 

structure 151 

Nearly every man will sell his un- 
sound horse 269 

Nearness to the heart does not ex- 
plain want of sensation in the 

foreleg 243 

Necessity for ascertaining the cus- 
tomer's desires 363 

Neck, the, generally indicates the 

disposition 389 

Neglected foot of the ass 102 

Never buy a horse said to be equal 

to your weight 418 

decide upon the first trial of a 

horse 373 

enter the stable where horses are 

kicking..... 227 

finger the horse you mean to pur- 
chase 872 

leave the animal before the bleed- 
ing is finished 92 

lose sight of the horse you con- 
template buying 279 

mount a strange nag in a crowded 

locality 272 

purchase a horse without a veter- 
inary examination of it 425 

Newly, the, born foal 442 

New shoe, the, has many recommend- 
ations 114 

Nibbling the wood-work induced by 

enforced idleness 204 

Nicking was a senseless barbarity... 380 

Night before the horse fair 359 

clothing 499 

the horse can see as well in, as the 

cat 32 

watcher, a, enables the food to be 

better distributed 325 

Nine o'clock duties 341 

Nippers is a misnomer when applied 
to the front teeth of the stabled 

horse 167 

only inspected to ascertain the age 137 
No accident should teach a horse 

doors and pain are associated... 308 
instrument formed of steel or iron 

should be permitted in the stable 335 
jockeyism can foretell the attack 

of kidney dropping 266 

man can know all about the breed- 
ing of all animals 427 

means can eradicate the evils of 
stables while pavement slopes... 251 

muscles present on the shin 410 

one would purchase, did horse 
dealers speak the truth 360 



No teeth no horse 133 

unknown undividual can pick the 

dealer's stock 375 

wild horses are known to be in 

existence 437 

Northern extremity of the stables 

divided into three small rooms.. 317 

Nose alone breathed through 69 

Nostrils, the, indicate the dimen- 
sions of the lungs 399 

Novel use made of the manger 210 

Noxious atmosphere, a, compels the 

resort to stimulants 329 



O. 



Oatmeal, good, described 180 

Oats are a most extravagant feed for 

horses 194 

are often moistened to increase 

their bulk 185 

best Scotch 180 

English feed 185 

English, from Canadian seed 180 

Finland black 184 

first class Swedes 181 

hair calculus 183 

Irish, bleached 184 

kiln dried Danish 184 

Konisberg 180 

light and heavy 182 

magnified English 183 

magnified musty 189 

new Irish feed 181 

Petersburg 180 

Scotch, second quality 184 

should be always bought by 

weight 181 

when musty are covered with 

fungi 189 

Observe that both shoulders are of 

the same bulk 417 

the eating capabilities of horses.. 354 

Objections to drinks 73 

Odd feet are evidences of former 

lameness 413 

feet are not uncommon among 

horses 413 

Ointment, blistering, is made with 

refuse flies 82 

Old English shoe 96 

hunter and young man's steed 464 

One failing, the, of horse dealers.... 360 
kind of jibber stops suddenly and 

backs 284 

lateral incisor in both jaws de- 
clares a four-year old 151 

prime foal in two years may be 
better than four bad every year 445 



542 



INDEX. 



One-year old, a, worked as a matured 

animal 143 

Open railings are becoming general. 307 
railings should partly form the 

partitions to loose boxes 307 

the stable doors during the night. 309 
Order the groom to peep during the 
night at the horse which is too 

tired to eat 352 

Original habitat of the equine race. 34 

Ould, the, mare 447 

Over-indulgence ruins the horse 454 

Oxyen, ditferent quantities of, in- 
haled by different horses 402 



P. 

Pace natural to blindness is induced 
by fixing the head with the 

bearing-rein 407 

Pad grooms, their weight, their 

qualifications, and their duties.. 334 
Pail, a clean one, should be kept in 

every stable 178 

Pain consequent upon eating the 

stable diet 169 

expressed by any peculiarity in 

progression 103 

from strain on the ligaments oc- 
casions inveterate kicking 271 

merely increases timidity 293 

Panic acts on horses as on men 226 

Paring the foot 102 

Parts affected in "kidney dropping" 270 
Passion an evil quality in a groom,. 500 
Pastern bones repose upon the back 

tendons 43 

play of, in thorough-breds, proof 

of elasticity in the entire body. 115 
the, are regulated by the flexor 

tendons 411 

the, should be judged by the 

swelling beneath the elbow 412 

Patented food, only the groom's se- 
cret largely acted upon 166 

Patent foods 196 

safety-spring stirrup bar 510 

trace shaft recommended in spinal 

disease 276 

Pattern of grating to put over gut- 
ters 300 

Patience is more than a virtue in a 

teacher 45Y 

Pay a fair price for good a horse.... 375 
Peculiar features of the fore limb... 409 

Peep, a, into a dealer's yard 305 

Peril of turning horses to graze with- 
out removing the halters 225 

Perils attending fright in the stable.. 209 
of modern coach-houses 323 



Period of gestation in the mare 448 

Permanent incisors come up in the 
same canals as the milk teeth 

occupied 159 

molars are not perfected when cut 156 
Perspiration implies cuticular ac- 
tivity 345 

when excessive, greatly weakens 

the body 465 

Perversity of the old agricultural 

mind 447 

Petersburg oats 180 

Physic and its administration 53 

Pinning up subsequent to bleeding.. 92 

Pitiable "vice" in horses 254 

Place of birth, the, also regulates the 

kind of hoof. 413 

the, is cleared before the stable 

flooring is disturbed 249 

two powerful men to prevent the 

jibber bolting 283 

Plan of hot water service 322 

Points, their importance and their 

development 379 

made to screw on to shoe, a good 

substitute for roughing 129 

of the blood haunches 419 

Portrait of a one-year old 143 

Position of the bones in the straight 

shoulder 405 

of the foot casts the weight on 

different sti-uctures 253 

Posterior limbs have no motion or 
sensation during a fit of kidney 

dropping 267 

Precautions necessary after bleeding 93 
necessary when bleeding the horse 90 

Prejudices concerning blisters 80 

Prejudice concerning the ears of a 

horse 282 

declares in favor of a short neck.. 392 

Preparation for scurfy skin 337 

Prepared horse skin boot is the best 

application for cutting 123 

Preparing the lying-in chamber 440 

for the event 441 

Present mode of shoeing is a failure. 104 

Presents, occasional, to servants 493 

Price, the, of most carriages 477 

Pricking the foot when nailing 100 

Pride, the, of the trade 360 

Prime horses are often bought on 

speculation by dealers 376 

Prisons should be built to resist the 

captives' utmost exertions 219 

Probable result of a man enduring 

the horse's doom for one week.. 206 
Profit and loss of a dealer's estab- 
lishment 366 

Proper mode of preparing stems for 
food 177 



INDEX. 



543 



Proper treatment would be far the 

cheapest in the long run 222 

Properties of the horn forming the 

wall of the hoof. 98 

Proposed stables are not to be 

measured by existing buildings. 297 

Prolonged action is better than ex- 
cessive labor 468 

Protect the points of flexion before 

blistering 83 

Proved, that the horse cannot be 

vicious 264 

Provision against the ravenous feed- 
ing horse 312 

Prudence is banished by joy when 

the horse is leaving the stables.. 237 

Puller, a, is always a dangerous ser- 
vant 398 

Pumping action necessary for the 

circulation of the foot 246 

Punish the smith who injures the 

hoof to fix on to it a small shoe. 131 

Pupil of the horse's eye not circular 31 

Purchases necessary when the horse 

is started 497 

Pure breeds often have bulging, 

frontal sinuses 394 

Purpose of the pastern joints 411 



Q. 

Qualifications of the author to des- 
cant on breeding 427 

Quarrels are provoked by narrow 

doorways 236 

between horse and driver gen- 
erally end fatally 264 

Quarters, hind, the seat of propul- 
sion 45 

Quarters of the hoof are left free by 

nailing the new shoe to the toe. 114 

Quiet method of giving a drink 77 

mode of giving a ball 67 

Quietude and darkness do not dis- 
pose the horse to sleep 311 



R. 

Kacers, when training, undergo ex- 
cessive labor 466 

generally are old before their 

stock becomes famous 431 

inhale more air during rapid mo- 
tion 403 

Racing men and bumpkins, their 

conduct contrasted 144 

Racing plates 115 

are dangerous shoes during the 
struggle •• 472 



Railroads not opposed to the breed 

of horses 18 

Rats enter stables through ordinary 

gutters 300 

Rat tails are said to denote good 

horses 387 

Rayment's, (Mr. C.,) his oatmeal 

recommended 178 

Rebound or spring of the racer im- 
proved by the present mode of 

shoeing 115 

Recapitulation of certain points in 

the horse 416 

Receiving the first lesson 458 

Reflection needed to comprehend the 

requirements of the horse 200 

Regular horse dealers avoid flats....- 363 
Regulations to be observed at feed- 
ing time 191 

Reins, the necessity of good leather 

for 517 

for foals should be partly of India- 
rubber 459 

Remedies for a scurfy skin 290 

for clicking 126 

for cutting 122 

for wounds and abrasions 231 

Repeated blows on one spot, evil of, 

when bleeding 91 

Requisites for the groom's use 500 

indications of a well-built car- 
riage 485 

Respect is felt toward a person M^ho 

can state his wants to a dealer. 374 

Rest depends upon digestion 311 

generally good for pedal annoy- 
ances 126 

is imperfect when taken standing. 260 

Restless eye, a, denotes timidity 396 

Restlessness induces the collar-rope 

to be bitten 215 

Results of deranged digestion 196 

Retention of the placenta 442 

Rick of the back 264 

disables a horse as a wheeler or 

to endure excessive strain 275 

is severe in heavy horses 273 

often leads to fracture of the spine 276 
or chink of the back is common, 

but little understood 266 

Ride, to, is not necessary in a good 

groom 333 

Rider, the, and the head destroy the 

equality of weight on the limbs. 417 
should understand the appear- 
ances of the healthy eye 290 

swings on elastic life when seated 

on the back 41 

Ridiculous to talk of a horse being 

"vicious" 263 

Rising to the leap 461 



544 



INDEX. 



Roacli backs are common on the 

Essex marshes 384 

generally spiteful 384 

have been used as hunters. 385 

Boiling occasions the hind leg to get 

beyond the post of the stall 280 

Boof consists of two parts 314 

of the ambulatoi-y, how supported 

and drained 302 

the, described 314 

Boom for the night-watcher is sup- 
plied with comforts 325 

Booms at back divided from the sta- 
ble by a stout wall 316 

Eoomy mares are a mistake 429 

Boots are relished by horses 195 

Boughing, as generally performed... 128 
Bough-riding is practiced at three 

years of age 147 

Bounded incisors would prevent the 

animal biting the grass 289 

Boundness of the jaw's lower mar- 
gin during colthood 142 

Bowen hay 174 

Bules for selecting a sire 438 

Bunning away 294 



S. 



Sacrum, the, is one bone in the adult 38 
Saddle-tree, a, with spring stirrup- 
bar attached 495 

Saddlery and harness 494 

Safety is sacrificed by the violent use 

of the bearing-rein 407 

Sameness of diet deranges the diges- 
tion 195 

of provender induces cutaneous 

irritability 286 

proves vice to be induced by dis- 
ease or by instinct 295 

Sand in the eye, the horse protected 

against 85 

Savage horse, how to render quiet... 60 

Scene witnessed at Holloway 294 

Science has demonstrated the mews 

is an unhealthy abode 828 

and practice unite in estimation 

of the loins 383 

Scotland, the ass does not breed in.. 49 
Scratching the ear often fixes the 

hind pastern in the collar-rope. 224 
Screw shoe, folly and inhumanity of. 118 

Scroll-eyed hames 506 

Seated shoe 117 

Second crop of clover 175 

Secretions, though hard, are gov- 
erned by the inward soft organs 118 

Section of a superficial gutter 299 

of the proposed stables 324 



See-sawing, or weaving, in horses... 205 

Segundo bit, the 523 

Senses, the special, assist one an- 
other 398 

Serious accident to a cavalry officer. 272 

Servants exaggerate the master's 

behavior 202 

Seven o'clock duties 339 

Seventh year, the, should witness the 

active service of the horse 462 

Several diseases are almost peculiar 

to the rich 323 

Severity endangers man's property 

in the horse 255 

Sharp-pointed nail heads no eflfect- 

ual substitute for roughing 129 

Shedding of the temporary molars.. 156 

Shelter and nurture are requisite 

for all young horses 429 

Sheltered ground between the gig 

and coach houses 820 

Ship biscuit proposed for horses' 

food 195 

Shoe is displaced by growth of horn 106 
is wide enough if it supports the 
wall 104 

Shoeing 95 

blamed for all the changes in the 
foot 101 

Shoes act injuriously by confining 

the foot.! 472 

the, should be observed at the 
time of purchase 424 

Short-necked horses cannot rest the 

limbs when at grass 892 

horses feed badly in the field 392 

Sides of the ventilator can be opened 

or closed at pleasure 315 

Sight should be obscured during the 

act of bleeding 91 

Sights of London streets 199 

Signs of old age in the horse 136 

Situation of the cistern 813 

Six o'clock duties 339 

Size and requirements of stable 

doors 307 

of less import than form of thorax. 403 

Skeletons in museums are never cor- 
rect 408 

Skin and lungs sympathize with each 

other 344 

Slanting floors pervert the inten- 
tions of bone and tendon 251 

hoofs are very bad 414 

pavement causes horses to stand 

across the stall 254 

shoulder, the benefits of 408 

Sliding mouth bit, the 524 

Slight movements excite the atten- 
tion of a stabled horse 203 

Slipper shoe, first mention of Ill 



INDEX. 



545 



Sloping pavement, a, extends from 

the front of the ambulatory 319 

Sloth not favorable to paternity 437 

Slow consuming boiler employed to 

warm the stables 321 

Small animals are prefei-red for their 

working capability 433 

stables do not generally kill be- 
cause they are draughty 81 

Smallness of neck shows debility... 389 
Snares which surround the groom... 330 

So-called "incapacitating vices" 263 

Society forces horse dealers to em- 
ploy iiction 360 

the, for preventing cruelty to ani- 
mals 476 

Soft palate, some of the uses of. 28 

Sole is removed by the shoeing smith 

and the veterinary surgeon 104 

made to bear some pressure 104 

Some English thorough-breds have 

Roman noses 394 

substitute should be found for a 

stud groom 335 

Southern end of the proposed stable. 319 
Space, the, above the horses should 

be free to the roof 332 

Spasmodic inlialation denotes defec- 
tive respiration 399 

Special senses, the, should be noted 
as testifying to the health of the 

body 308 

Speedy cut often causes a fall 121 

warrants instant rejection 423 

Spinal cord, the, is injured when 

"kidney dropping" occurs 2G9 

Spine, how tlie boues of are united.. 39 
sinks and rises in the living horse 383 
the, of a horse is delicately or- 
ganized 265 

the base of the skeleton 38 

Spring bar and spring stirrup 510 

Squatting on the haunches is an un- 
natural position in the horse.... 267 
Stable implements are terrible weap- 
ons 318 

pails are not suited to contain a 

horse's drink 314 

the, cannot be well managed by 

one pair of hands 339 

is relinquished to the servant 335 

the only one known to the ass 48 

new, will be tlirice drained 301 

Stables are inadequate prisons for 

horses 219 

not proportioned to the horse's 

size 225 

opposed to the habits and instincts 

of horses 247 

the last considered when houses 
are planned 233 



Stables as built — are they the best 

possible? 252 

are paved with Dutch clinkers 249 

as they should be 297 

do not require a blaze of light — 229 
in many families, are regarded as 

lumber lofts 220 

promote the decomposition of 

urine 249 

should be as clean as dairies 316 

Stablemen suft'er most from present 

customs 226 

Stagnant misery is personified in the 

horse 243 

Stallions are generally too fat 431 

Standing in the manger 208 

while it sleeps 260 

Starvation is injurious before exer- 
tion 471 

Starved, horses are, when confined 

in small stables 81 

Steeds are worn out serving more 

than one master 334 

Steel inserted at the toe of the clip 

shoe 120 

Stewart's stable economy 234 

Stiff back reduces the horse's value. 278 

Stick, blood, depicted 90 

Stomach small and Avell situated 20 

Stout horn is required in the hoof of 

a horse 415 

Stranger, a, has entered the stable.. 204 
Strange substances eaten in stables. 196 
Straw figure should be placed on the 

colt's back 458 

worthless as food 177 

Striking a horse when passing 

through a door is dangerous.... 238 
Strong feet are not necessarily liable 

to disease 414 

Submissive, the, are the abused 234 

Substance is absent in the present 

breed of horses 432 

Substances which do not nourish are 

not food 193 

Suburban grooms generallj'^ live in 

the house 328 

Suburbs, the, are often disturbed by 

the thud of a trotted cart 274 

Successful dealers are conceited 377 

Sudden agony makes horses kick 

when mounted 271 

Suffering experienced at three years 148 

Sulphur on oats, to detect 185 

Summered 474 

Summer's coat, advent of, is delayed 

by clipping 344 

Supposed places of the groom's resi- 
dence during certain periods.... 329 

Supply of water, how arranged 313 

Swerving is a mild form of shying.. 292 

35 



546 



INDEX. 



T. 

Tails as denoting breed 387 

Tail, the, acts as the rudder of the 

body 380 

Take everything coolly when in a 

dealer's yard 374 

Tale, a, illustrative of patience 520 

Tapidum lucidum, its uses in the 

horse's eye 32 

Tares are good food 189 

Tax, a, is demanded on all that en- 
ters or leaves the stable 330 

Tearing the clothing 287 

Teeth 133 

at advanced periods 161, 162 

at birth 139 

cannot be positively interpreted 

after the fifth year 163 

one fortnight old 140 

three months old 140 

Telescopic nature of the horse's eye. 33 

Temporary loose box 356 

molars, peculiarity in the shed- 
ding of the 156 

Tempting position of the manger 210 

Tendon cannot sustain pressure 254 

Ten o'clock duties 341 

Terrible consequences of thought- 
lessness, or of parsimony 262 

Terror is never removed till the 

horse's spirit is broken 240 

is dangerous as the place of its 

exhibition is circumscribed 255 

mistaken for "vice" 109 

Test for "kidney dropping" 268 

Thickness of neck not an objection.. 389 

jaw caused by young teeth 142 

Things needed to dress a sensitive 

horse 289 

Thin heeled shoe pointed the toe 

upward, and did harm 120 

neck accompanies emaciation 460 

stomachs often taken from the 

bodies of old horses 178 

walls, difficulty of nailing a shoe 

on 100 

■web to the seated shoe 117 

ear deiuites goodness of breed 395 

Thinning the sole 103 

Thirst, a consequence of dry food... 167 
Thorough-bred quarters express de- 
termination 419 

Three purgatives cannot promote 

strength 465 

quarter shoe 116 

Time should be allowed for nervous- 
ness to subside 240 

the, occupied in foaling is short... 489 

Times when the horse feeds ]97 

Timidity files from any danger 281 



Tips afford all the protection tlie 

racer's foot requires 473 

Toe is cut and burnt when the horse 

shoe has a clip 108 

reasons for fixing nails into 113 

Toes, the, in the forefeet point up- 
ward in the stable 243 

the, depressed in the gutter cause 

a luxurious sense of ease 250 

To fly from danger is an instinct in 

the horse 295 

make gruel properly 178 

Tool-house at the back of stables.... 318 
Tools necessary for White's mode of 

roughing 130 

the, employed for carriages 480 

Too many classes swindle when 

horse dealing 269 

Tooth, its component substances 157 

Torture is a favorite mode of cure 

with grooms 287 

Town grooms inhabit impure rooms 

over the stables 328 

Trainer's, the, stables are foul 467 

Training and running are bad prep- 
arations for paternity 429 

folly of the present system 187 

necessary for young horses from 

the country 366 

spoils the temj^ers of many colts.. 470 
stables do not develop the true 

disposition of a horse 434 

Treading on an upright nail 101 

Treatment for jibbing 283 

for kidney dropping 268 

for rick of the back 275 

of the ass reprobated 47 

of the blood stallion 431 

of the heels when dirty 350 

proper for the blood mare 435 

Troughs are empty while the cistern 

contains some water 321 

Tuition should be daily till the sec- 
ond year 459 

Turkish slipper, likeness to 102 

Tushes are affected by age 161 

are uncertain teeth in the horse... 150 

Twitch, a, generally kept 74 

Two chains and a collar-strap are 

employed on some horses 217 

kinds of cutting 121 

men meeting on a hill do not re- 
tain their relative positions 254 



u. 

Uncertain which shoe will prtivent 

clicking or forging 125 

Unclothing the beauty 376 



INDEX. 



547 



Undulating pavement aifords every 

kind of standing gi-ound 

Unfitness of horses for captivity... . 
Uninitiated, the, greedy for bar- 
gains 

Unnecessary, bleeding is 

Upland hay 

the only good hay 

Upright pasterns denote hard work 
h-as strained the ilexor muscles. 
Urine, on exposure yields ammo- 
nia 

stagnates in the gutters 

Use of the mane and tail 

Uses of the different components of 
the teeth 

of the false nostril 

of the harness-room 

of the sheltered space 

to which stable doors are sub- 



ject. 



Usual applications, the, check the 
hoofs perspiratory functions ... 
explanation, accounting for the 

weakness of the fore limbs 

length of horse cloths 

method of cleansing the heels 

Utter darkness excites timidity 



299 
203 

277 

93 

172 

176 

411 

249 
249 
380 

158 

25 

317 

320 

236 

353 

416 
350 
346 
226 



V. 

Valves aid the circulation when op- 
posed to gravity 245 

in the veins of the leg 244 

of jugular veins only act when 
the head is depressed 22 

Various people buy and sell horses. 357 
substances are interposed between 
the ends of bone 42 

Veins so arranged as to prevent 
congestion if feeding off the 
ground 21 

Ventilation secured by having the 

doors in parts 308 

Ventilator roofed with stout glass... 315 

Vertebras, the, are the base of the 

skeleton 380 

Vetches, on which agricultural teams 

live, indicate no danger in beans 468 

Veterinary examiners too often neg- 
lect the spine 277 

profession composed of imper- 
fectly educated men 73 

Vicious horses are mostly weakly 

creatures 418 

View extended by mounting on to 

the manger 210 

V^oicc. the, is sufficient goad for a 

willin": animal 460 



w. 

Walking a horse is more than simply 

moving 124 

through the stables and physick- 
ing the stock 377 

essential to the horse's foot 246 

Wall of the hoof 98 

the, is struck during darkness 258 

Warranties are of no value 370 

AVaste of present feeding 193 

Wasting the hay 212 

Watch the action while the horse is 

being run along the ride 423 

Water, its importance in the stable.. 486 

should be freely employed 338 

should only be applied to the heels 

after special permission 352 

troughs described 313 

Weakly or healthy foals now suck 

only the same time 446 

Weakness is not the accompaniment 

of the racer's elastic pastern.... 411 

Weariness cannot promote thrift 249 

induces the horse to play with its 

needless corn 213 

Weaving is an effort to promote the 

circulation of the foot 250 

or see-sawing in horses 205 

Web slants in the seated shoe 117 

none to the slipper shoe Ill 

the, of the shoe serves to retain 

stones 103 

Wedged-heeled shoe, danger of 119 

Weeds of the blood stock 422 

Weight should not be put on horses 

during training 468 

the, of the head is not felt during 

health 388 

Well-bred, the, and coarse-bred 

heads contrasted 393 

Wetting the heels most injurious.... 346 
What occasions horses to kick by 

night? 228 

Wheels, how long these should 

last 488 

how to use and understand 491 

When a part of the frame moves, all 

parts are agitated 150 

buying, procure a horse rather too 

strong than strong enough 374 

gentlemen meddle, the dealer ex- 
ults 372 

the foal quits its dam, breaking 

should commence 458 

Where the fore limb quits the trunk, 

muscle should abound 409 

White horses are generally old 136 

Why a carriage should be cleansed 

from mud 487 

breeding does not pay 428 



548 



INDEX. 



Widest, the, of modern stable doors 

are too narrow 238 

Width of channel testifies to the 

breathing capability 399 

Wild animals are not caged like the 

horse 202 

horses nowhere exist 37 

Wind sucking caused by stables 205 

Windpipe capable of contraction 26 

Winter's frost always takes horse 

proprietors by surprise 126 

Winter shoes are best made in sum- 
mer 126 

Wintry perspirations, probable cause 

of 343 

Wipe the oil off after blistering 83 

Wired-in hoofs are bad 415 

Wisp and brush are abused 342 

Withhold all medicine from the 

breeding mare 443 

Wolves' teeth are of no importance. 143 



Work demands more support than 

grass affords 133 

when not excessive, benefits health 435 

Worked too early 19 

AVorst cheat, the, in horse flesh 3'57 

Wound, precautions necessary after 

bleeding 93 

Written warranties seldom required 

by the honest dealer 365 

Wrongs inflicted on horses 199 

Y. 

Yew clippings poison horses 171 

Young animals are purchased by the 

London dealers 366 

horses are put in the chains as 

teamsters 265 

horses should be from birth set 
apart for their future uses 433 



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Great Truths by Great Authors. 

A Dictionary of Aids to Reflection, Quotations of Maxims, Counsels, Cautions, 
Aphorisms, Proverbs, etc. etc., from Writers of all Ages and both Hemispheres. 
1 vol. demi 8vo. 

Thiers' s Consulate and Empire of Napoleon. 

The Histoi'y of the Consulate and Empire of France under Napoleon. By M. 
Adolpiie Thiers, late Prime Minister of France, Member of the French 
Academy and of the Institute. Complete in 5 vols. 8vo. 

The Publishers have the pleasure of 
announcing that this great work of M. 
Thiers is completed, — the concluding 
volume (V.) having just been issued 



uniform with the volumes preceding. 
Either of the volumes will be furnished 
separately, in any style of binding, to 

complete sets. 



Beck's Medical Jurisprudence. 



Elements of Medical Jurisprudence. By Tiieodric Romeyn Beck, M.D., LL.D., 
and John B. Beck, M.D. Twelfth edition. With Notes by an association of 
the friends of Drs. Beck. The whole revised by C. R. Gilman, M.D., Professor 
of Medical Jurisprudence in the College of Physicians and Surgeons of New 
York. 2 vols. 8vo. 



From Prof. J. W. Fowler, LL.D., Principal " State 
and National Law Scliool," Poughkeepsie, N.Y. 

* * * It should be in the possession 
of all who desire a ready access to this 



most interesting and important branch 
of Legal Science, a knowledge of which 
is essential to professional success. 



J. B. LIPPINOOTT & Oo.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



Crooks and Schemes Latin.English School Lexicon. 

A New Latin-English School Lexicon, on the basis of the Latin-German Lexicon 
of Dr. C. F. Ingerslev. By G. R. Ceooks, D.D., and A. J. Schem, A.M. 8vo. 



This work gives: — 

1. Special attention to the words of 
Latin authors read in Colleges and 
Schools. 

2. The leading definitions in broad 
and clear type, so as to be easily caught 
by the eye. 

3. The significations perspicuously ar- 
ranged and illustrated by examples 



easily understood, or, if difficult, care- 
fully translated. 

4. The origin of each word, where it 
is known. 

5. A comparison of important words 
and their synonyms. 

6. Brief notices of proper names, and 
of the adjectives derived from them. 



Freund's LeveretVs Latin Lexicon. 

A New and Copious Lexicon of the Latin Language. Edited by F. P. Leverett. 
A new edition, embracing the Classical Distinctions of Words and the Etymo- 
logical Index of Freund's Lexicon. 8vo. 



Addison^ s Complete Works. 



Embracing numerous pieces now first collected, and Macaulay's Essay on the 
Life and Writings of Addison. Edited, with Notes, by Prof. Greene. With 
a portrait on steel. Complete in 6 vols. 12mo. 

f 

The Works of Laurence Sterne. 

First Complete American edition. With a Life of the Author, and portrait on 
steel. 2 vols. 12mo. 



The Works of William Hazlitt. 

Comprising his "Table-Talk," "Lectures on Literature," 
12mo. 



'Essays," etc. 5 vols. 



Frick's Physical Technics. 



Physical Technics ; or. Practical Instructions for Making Experiments in Phys- 
ics, and the construction of Physical Apparatus with the most limited means. 
By Dr. J. Fbick, Director of the High Sohool in Freiburg, and Professor of 
Physics in the Lyceum. Ti'anslated by Rev. Dr. John B. Easter. Illustrated 
by over 800 engravings. One vol. 8vo. 

them, scores of ingenious contrivances 
for experimental purposes at a very 
trifling expense. It will suggest to them, 
moreover, hundreds of admirable exper- 
iments not hinted at in the school text- 
books, or heard of even in the lecture- 
rooms of our colleges. The book ought 
to be in the library of every school where 
physical science is taught. 



From Prof. Wm. J. Kolfe, A.M., Master of the High 
School, Salem, Mass. 

Frick's work is as useful as it is 
unique, — as valuable in its matter as it 
is beautiful in its mechanical execution. 
No other book published in this coun- 
try, and none, I think, in the English 
language, covers the same ground. Many 
teachers will learn from it how to add, 
to the scanty apparatus often furnished 



J. B. LIPPmOOTT & Oo.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



ChauveneVs Astronomy, 

A Manual of Spherical and Practical Astronomy, embracing the General Prob- 
lem of Spherical Astronomy, its special applications to Nautical Astronomy, 
and the Theory and Use of Fixed and Portable Astronomical Instruments. 
With an Appendix on the "Method of Least Squares." Illustrated by en- 
gravings on wood and steel. By William Chauvenet, Professor of Mathe- 
matics and Astronomy in Washington University, St. Louis. 2 vols. Royal 
8vo. $10.00. 

Army of the Cumberland. 

Annals of the Army of the Cumberland, comprising Biographies, Descriptions of 
Departments, Accounts of Expeditions, Skirmishes, and Battles; also its Po- 
lice Record of Spies, Smugglers, and Prominent Rebel Emissaries, together 
with Anecdotes, Incidents, Reminiscences, etc., and Official Reports of the 
Battle of Stone River. By an Officee. Illustrated with numerous Steel 
Portraits, Engravings, and Maps. 8vo. 

3Iarks's Peninsular Campaign. 

The Peninsular Campaign in Virginia; or, Incidents and Scenes on the Battle 
Fields and in Richmond. Illustrated with numerous engravings. By Rev. 
J. J. Marks, D.D., Chaplain of the 6od Pennsylvania Regiment. 12mo. §1.50. 

Cassin's American Ornithology. 

American Ornithology; giving a General Synopsis of North American Orni- 
thology, and containing Descriptions and Figures of all North American Birds 
not given by former American Authors, after the manner, and designed as a 
continuation of the Works of Audubon. By John Cassin, Member of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, etc. etc. Illustrated with fifty 
beautifully-colored Plates. One vol. 8vo. 

Cassin^s Mammalogy and Ornithology. 

The Mammalogy and Ornithology of the United States Exploring Expedition, 
under the command of Commodore Wilkes. Prepared under the superintend- 
ence of John Cassin, Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences, etc. One 
vol. quarto, with a Folio Atlas of over fifty colored Engravings. §50.00. 

g@°" Only 150 copies of this work published. 

Baird\s Birds of North America. 

The Birds of North America: The descriptions of species based chiefly on the 
collections in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. By Spencer F. 
Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; with the co-opera- 
tion of John Cassin, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and 
Geo. N. Lawrence, of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. With an 
Atlas of one hundred plates. Text, one vol. 4to., §5.00; Atlas, one vol. 4to., 
§15.00. 



J. B. LIPPINOOTT & Oo.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



Sloan's Architectural Works. 

Sloan's Constructive Architecture : A guide for the builder and carpenter; 
exhibiting the construction of a series of designs for roofs, domes, spires, and 
the five orders of architecture, selected from the best specimens of Grecian 
and Roman art, with the figured dimensions of their height, projection, and 
profile. To whicli is added a treatise on practical geometry. The whole illus- 
trated by G2 plates, and accompanied by explanatory text. By Samuel Sloan, 
Architect, author of the "Model Architect," "City and Suburban Architec- 
tui'e," etc. etc. One vol. 4to. 

Sloan's City and Suburban Architecture : In which are exhibited numerous 
designs and details for public edifices, private residences, and mercantile build- 
ings. Illustrated with 136 folio engravings, accompanied by specifications, 
and historical and explanatory text. By Samuel Sloan, author of the "Model 
Architect," "Sloan's Constructive Architecture," etc. etc. One vol. folio. 

Sloan's Homestead Architecture : Containing forty designs for villas, cot- 
tages, and farm-houses, with essays on style, construction, landscape garden- 
ing, furniture, etc. Illustrated with upwards of 200 engravings. By Samuel 
Sloan, Architect. One vol. 8vo. 



The first of these works is adapted to 
the wants of the practical builder and 
mechanic, presenting in natural succes- 
sion numerous examples of forms gener- 
ally esteemed the most useful in con- 
structive carpentry. The second is de- 
voted mainly to city architecture, con- 
taining a great number of designs and 
illustrations for public edifices, private 
residences, and mercantile buildings. 
Each volume is illustrated by a great 
variety of elegant engravings, and be- 
sides the value of the reading matter, 
which to a great extent is founded on the 
personal experience of the author, in 
point of typographical finish and beauty 
is a model of tasteful and attractive ex- 
ecution. — N. Y. Tribune. 

Sloan's Constructive Architectm'e is 
one of tlie very best and most elegant 
books on architecture that has appeared 
from the American press. It is prepared 
in the clearest manner, and beautifully 

Hamilton's History of the United States. 

History of the Eepublic of the United States of America as traced in the writings 
of Alexander Hamilton and of his cotemporaries. By John C. Hamilton. In 
seven vols. 8vo. (Vol. VII. just published.) 

The Federalist. 

A Commentai-y on the Constitution of the United States; a collection of Essays 
by Alexander Hamilton, Jay, and Madison; also the Continentalist and other 
papers, bj'^ Hamilton. Edited by John C. Hamilton, author of the "History 
of the Republic of the United States." In one vol. 8vo. 



illustrated, and will be found of great 
value not only to architects, but to build- 
ers of all classes. The plates which il- 
lustrate and explain the text, are drawn 
with rare skill, and are superb speci- 
mens of engraving. — Evening Transcript. 

Sloan's Constructive Architecture is a 
full and eminently practical treatise on 
the higher branches of carpentry, join- 
ery, and building, and is such a work as 
every builder who is not a mere imitator 
of the plans of others will desire to pos- 
sess. — Boston Journal. 

City and Suburban Architecture is a 
perfect storehouse of knowledge on all 
subjects and details which relate to the 
subject of architecture. * * * It will 
serve the student as well as the master, 
for it furnishes an abundance of informa- 
tion as to the early progress of archi- 
tecture, and the rapid stride of improve- 
ment in modern times. — Boston Post. 



J. B. LIPPmOOTT & Oo.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



BaircVs Mammals. 

Mammals of North America: The descriptions of species based chiefly on the 
collections in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. By Spencer F, 
Baird, Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. One vol. 4to., of 
854 pp., with 32 wood-cuts and 87 plates of figures illustrating the genera and 
species. Colored plates, $15.00. Plain plates, $10.00. 



Bulwer's Works. 

The Works of Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton, Bart., D.C.L. Uniform library edition, 
in forty vols. 12mo., elegantly printed on tinted paper. Cloth, $1.00 per vol- 
ume; sheep, $1.25; half calf, $1.75. 



THE CAXTON NOVELS. 



The Caxton Family 

My Novel . 

What will he do with it? 



HISTORICAL ROMANCES. 
Devereux .... 
The Last Days of Pompeii 
Rienzi .... 

The Siege of Granada 
The Last of the Barons 
Harold .... 



2 vols. 
4 vols. 

3 vols. 



2 vols. 
2 vols. 
2 vols. 

1 vol. 

2 vols. 
2 vols. 



ROMANCES. 



Pilgrims of the Rhine 
Eugene Aram 
Zanoni 



NOVELS OF LIFE AND MANNERS 
Pelham ...... 

The Disowned ..... 

Paul Clifford 

Godolphin ...... 

Ernest Maltravers — First Part . 
Ernest Maltravers — Second Part, (Alice^ 
Night and Morning .... 

Lucretia ...... 



1 vol. 

2 vols. 
2 vols. 



2 vols. 
2 vols. 
2 vols. 

1 vol. 

2 vols. 
2 vols. 
2 vols. 
2 vols. 



Several of the volumes have been already published, and the remainder will 
follow in rapid succession. 

Jg®*" Each work furnished separately if desired. 



Parables of our Lord. 



Beautifully printed in Ornate Saxon type on tinted paper, and magnificently 
Illustrated with Engravings on Steel. Folio. 



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Scoffs Waverley Novels. 

In various styles, including — 

I. An Abbotsford Edition.— Complete in twelve volumes, demi octavo, with 
illustrations. 

II. A Royal Octavo Illustrated Edition.— Tn twelve volumes, splendidly 
illustrated with over 300 engravings, comprising Landscapes, Incidents, and 
Portraits of the Historical personages described in the Works. 

III. A Pictorial Edition. — In twenty-four volumes, duodecimo, illustrated 
with over 300 steel and wood engravings. 

IV. A People's Edition. — Complete in six volumes, octavo, illustrated. 

V. A Xew and Beautifully Illustrated Edition.— In forty-eight volumes, 
cap 8vo., printed on a beautiful Long Primer Type, and illustrated with over 
1500 wood-cuts and steel engravings. (Published in connection with the 
Messrs. A. & C. Black, of Edinburgh.) 

JominVs Art of War. 

The Art of War. By Baron ue Jomixi, General and Aid-de-Camp of the Em- 
peror of Russia. A new edition, with appendices and maps. Translated from 
the French by Captain G. H. Mendell, U.S.A., Corps of Topographical En- 
gineers, and Lieutenant W. P. Cbaighill, U.S.A., Corps of Engineers. One 
vol. demi 8vo. |1.50. 



While everybody is criticising the war, 
would it not be well for somebody to 
read this greatest of military critics, 
and know a mere smattering about the 
matters so dogmatically discussed ? * 



* * * It might be convenient occa- 
sionally in conversation to back up an 
opinion by an allusion to the Baron de 
.Jomini. It must be confessed that he 
knows soviething about war. — Con. Courant. 



Manual for Courts Martial. 

A manual for Courts Martial: Containing full explanations of the duties of all 
officers employed on such service, with complete forms of proceedings. By 
Captain Henry Copp^e, late Instructor in the Military Academy at West Point. 
18mo. 

Chambers's Encyclopedia. 

A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People, on the basis of the latest 
edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Illustrated with Maps and 
numerous wood Engravings. Published in Parts; price, 20 cents each; to be 
comprised in nine volumes, royal 8vo. Vol. V. just published. 

Steel-plate Maps, beautifully printed in colors, to illustrate the geographical 
portion of the Encyclop83dia, are furnished to subscribers at a reasonable extra 

charge. 

The Maps for Vol. I. are seven in number, price $ .50 
u .< a II. .< three " " " .25 

a .. ii w III. .* two " " " .I'J 

" " " '^' IV. " three " " " .25 

.< » u V. u six •' " " .50 

Subscribers to the monthly parts will be furnished with muslin cases for the vol- 
umes at 50 cents each, or the Publishers will bind the volumes in cloth for 75 cents 
each. 



J. B. LIPPINCOTT & Oo.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



Flanders' s Chief Justices. 



The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United 
States. By Henry Flanders. Two vols. 8vo. $5.00. 

These volumes are an important con- 
tribution not only to biography, but to 
the military, civil, and political history 
of the country. It is a work of great 
learning, ability, and research. * * * 



The narrative brings into view not only 
the Chief Justices, but all the leading 



men of their times, and discusses their 
characters with just and appreciative 
criticism. * * * The amount of in- 
formation it contains will render it an 
indispensable book in all libraries where 
justice is done to biographical and his- 
torical literature. — Home Gazette. 



Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World. 



Footfalls on the Boundary of Another 
Member of Congress, and American 

This work is devoted to an inquiry 
whether occasional interferences from 
another world in this be reality or delu- 
sion. It treats of the phenomena of 
sleep, dreams, somnambulism. It ex- 
amines the alleged evidences for pre- 
sentiments, second-sight, house-haunt- 
ings, and apparitions; referring to the 



World. By Robert Dale Owen, formerly 
Minister to Naples Onevol. 12mo. $1.25, 

most approved modern works on hallu- 
cination, insanity, and the nervous sys- 
tem. It inquires whether, when we set 
down the narratives of all ages (includ- 
ing our own) that touch on the marvels 
referred to, as mere vulgar sui^crsti- 
tions, we are overlooking any actual 
phenomena. 



Ruschenherger's Natural History. 



First Books of Natural History, for schools, colleges, and families. By W. S. W. 
Ruschenberger, M.D., U.S.N., viz.: — 

1. Elements of Anatomy and Physiology. 12mo. 

2. Elements of Mammalogy. 12mo. 

3. Elements of Ornithology. 12mo. 

4. Elements of Herpetology and Ichthyology. 12mo. 

5. Elements of Conchology. 12mo. 

6. Elements of Entomology. 12mo. 

7. Elements of Botany. 12mo. , 

8. Elements of Geology. 

9. Lexicon of Terms used in Natural History. 12mo. 

First Books of Natural History, embracing the above works, complete, with 
nearly 1000 illustrations and a copious glossary. In 2 vols. 12mo. 

now the study of natural science I would 
certainly take your books for my guide. 
I would be glad to see them brought 
more prominently forward so as to oc- 
cupy the place to which they are enti- 
tled. 

Yours sincerely, 

WILLIAM A. HAMMOND. 
De. W. S. W. Ruschenberger, U.S.N., 
Boston, Mass. 



Irom Brig.-General Wm. A. Hammond, Surgeon- 
General U.S.A. 

Washington, D. C , Feb. 21st, 1864. 
My Dear Doctor: — 

It gives me great pleasure to coniirm 
your recollection of what I several j^ears 
ago said to you in regard to your series 
of books on Natural History. Not only 
did I receive my first ideas of zoology 
from them, but if I had to commence 

Irving' s Sketch Book. 



Elegantly Illustrated. The Artist's Edition of Washington Irving's Sketch Book, 
printed on paper of the choicest description, and Illustrated with 125 Engrav- 
ings from original designs by eminent artists. Quarto. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

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